The Socio Economic Effects Of Grazing Reserve In Nigeria

CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
1.1      BACKGROUND TO THE STUDY
Right from time, Fulani herdsmen (pastoralists) and farmers in northern and southern Nigeria have been living symbiotically together in communities. But over time, the mutual relationship between the pastoralists and farmers deteriorated, leading to incessant conflicts over land for livestock and agricultural crops respectively. Though, these conflicts have been an old age problem, but it has escalated in the last decade and has assumed a very deadly dimension. These clashes between the two parties has often led to loss of lives and property in affected communities. These conflicts can be said to be embedded in and aggravated by the increasing competition for land as a result of population growth, land scarcity, and a new solvency due to income earned outside agriculture (Gefu and Gilles, 1990; Fraser, 1997). Many factors have contributed in one way or the other over time to severe the peaceful coexistence that once existed between Fulani pastoralists and the farming communities.
Tenuche and Ifatimehin (2009) noted that according to other literatures, the incessant resource conflicts between farmers and herdsmen witnessed in the tropics have usually resulted in loss of lives, property and environmental degradation as also witnessed in some developed countries such as Balkans (Hellstrom, 2001; Niemella et al., 2005). The Fulani herdsmen have borne a large proportion of the blame for most conflict and environmental degradation in policy statements in the Guinea Savannah region of West African states (Thebaud and Batterburry, 2001). The production potential of grassland and livestock in the arid and semi-arid region of Africa is constrained by low and variable rainfall (Thebaud and Batterbury, 2001; Ifatimehin, 2008). Therefore, there is a need for grazing lands so as to enable accessibility of pasture resources across regions by pastoralists and their livestock in order to ensure food security for the herds.
Of important note is the fact that in the past, cattle rearing was mainly prevalent in the Sudan and Sahel savanna belts where crop production by the farmers was carried out only during the short rainy season on a small scale. This gave the herdsmen access to a vast area of grass land for their livestock. But as time went on, and with the introduction of irrigated farming in the savanna belt of Nigeria, and the increased withering of pasture during the dry season, less pasture was available to the livestock. The herdsmen had to move southward from the Sahel regions to sub-humid zones like Kaduna and Niger, where the rainy season is longer, the temperature is moderate and the soil retains moisture for long, in search of pasture and water – a movement called transhumance (Ofuoku and Isife, 2009). They found more comfort in croplands and thus encroaching into the farmlands and thus, displeasing the farmers who retaliate.
Furthermore, Tonah (2006) opined that factors that account for the increasing farmer-herder conflict over time include the southward movement of pastoral herds into the humid and sub-humid zones, promoted by the successful control of animal diseases in these areas, the widespread availability of veterinary medicine and the expansion of farming activities into areas that hitherto served as pastureland. Also, the growth in population and its density has led to urbanization with an increased demand for land and pressure on land meant for farming and grazing in the past. This gave rise to an increased pressure on natural resources and a stiff competition for available resources between farmers and herders (Adebayo, 1997; Breuser et al. 1998).
Other factors that have contributed to the breakdown of the peaceful coexistence of farmers and pastoralists in Nigeria include: inadequacy of grazing resources, as increasing crop cultivation (and increasing commercialization of the crop-residues) and poor management of the existing grazing reserves have resulted in a significant reduction in available livestock feed resources, in particular in the northern states. Moreover the high-yield crops introduced by agricultural research institutions (e.g. tomatoes and onions) produce almost no crop-residues for livestock feeding. Also, the regulation that twenty percent of the fadama (irrigated farmlands) would need to be set aside for grazing (National Agricultural Policy, 1988) has not been adhered to; and then, the decline in internal discipline and social cohesion, as the adherence to the traditional rules regarding grazing periods, and the authority of the traditional rulers is breaking down (Adisa, 2012).
According to Ajuwon (2004), other factors that have contributed in the long-term to this farmers-pastoralists strife include:

  1. Inappropriate Land tenure and land use practices whereby traditional access rights to communal grazing and water resources are being obstructed by the individual tenureship of arable farmers.
  2. Non-observation of rules and regulations regarding dry season farming and grazing
  • Inadequacy and the poor state of the existing grazing reserves as they have been encroached for farming activities.
  1. Blockage and use of stock routes by farmers and individuals due to its fertility, leading to reduction in the size of these routes.
  2. Poor land and soil conservation measures, limiting the areas available for operations by the farmers and pastoralists. Whatever the causes of farmer-herdsmen conflicts are, it is evident that the conflicts have been of great negative effects. These range from economic effects such as loss of income/resources/yield, to physical effects such as home/farm destruction, bodily injury or death of family members and socio-psychological effects such as emotional exhaustion and job dissatisfaction.

In order to curb all of the aforementioned problems which have jointly been responsible for deadly clashes between the farmers and herdsmen, there is a need to settle pastoralists permanently on government-assigned and delineated lands called grazing reserves. Ismail (2013) rightly noted that grazing reserves and stock routes top the list of Fulani pastoralists‟ demands from the Nigerian government. It is believed that the creation, development and expansion of grazing reserves and the proper mapping of stock routes will boost livestock population, will lessen the difficulty of herding, will reduce seasonal migration, and will enhance symbiotic interaction among farmers, pastoralists, and rural dwellers. In creating and developing grazing reserves across conflict-ridden zones in Nigeria, it is important to establish them at sites with optimum comfort for the herders, their livestock and the surrounding communities. Here, suitability mapping using Multicriteria Evaluation (MCE) technique in GIS environment comes into play to ensure that the most suitable sites are set aside for these grazing reserves taking into consideration various biophysical, socioeconomic and environmental factors.
Grazing reserves are areas of land dedicated or set aside for pastoral use and they are considered as proven self-sustaining solution for pastoralists. A grazing reserve can also be said to be a piece of land that the government acquires, develops, and releases to the pastoral Fulani. It is a tract of land specially set aside by governments for use by herders or pastoralists to hold and graze their cattle. Ingawa et al. (1989) defined grazing reserves in Nigeria as areas set aside for the use of pastoralists and are intended to be the foci of livestock development. Grazing reserves resemble group ranches in that both of them consist of clearly defined areas of rangeland which provides grazing for determined herds of livestock. On group ranches in Kenya, pastoralists have a right to land under national law. In Nigeria, they have not in the past had such rights and grazing reserves more closely resemble what Oxby (l982a) termed ‘grazing blocks’. There are now plans for issuing 30 year leases for parcels of land within the grazing reserves in order to encourage them to invest in land improvement.
 
Some state and local governments in Nigeria have gazetted and obtained grazing land varying in size. The federal government shoulders seventy percent (70%) of the burden of developing the grazing reserves, the state governments shoulder twenty percent (20%) while the local governments carry 10% of the responsibilities and gives each settler on the reserve a piece of land. Depending on the herd size and the carrying capacity of the land, the settler pays an annual rent to the government (Suleiman, 1986).
 
Suleiman (1986) also noted that the stated purpose of Grazing Reserves is the settlement of nomadic pastoralists; they offer security of tenure as an inducement to sedenterization through the provision of land for grazing and permanent water. Large parcels of land have been demarcated, some legally sanctioned by order in the Official Gazette and basic infrastructure such as dams and boreholes have been constructed on these lands. Potential settlers are recruited through the livestock extension service.
1.2      STATEMENT OF RESEARCH PROBLEM
In recent years, Nigeria has witnessed series of violent communal clashes arising from the activities of the nomads who move about on a daily basis with their cattle in search of water and green pastures.
According to Ismail (2013), these pastoralists and their livestock are on the streets in most of our cities and could also be found operating in the remotest villages in various states of the country. Roaming cows, sheep, and goats scavenging around school play grounds, golf courses, government residential areas, street shoulders, and railway sidings are a common sight in the cities due to pasture scarcity. These beasts obstruct traffic flow, endanger street users, amplify urban congestion and often have their excrement littering the ground. What has informed the couching of the idea of establishing grazing reserves is the incessant clashes between Fulani herdsmen and farmers in many parts of the country especially in states such as Kogi, Plateau, Benue, Niger, Nasarawa, the southern half of Kaduna and Bauchi.
There has been growing concern in various parts of the country about the increased conflicts between farmers and pastoralists. Tenuche and Ifatimehin (2009) in their research: “Resource Conflict among Farmers and Fulani Herdsmen: Implications for Resource Sustainability” describe the traditional relationship between farmers and Fulani herdsmen and the incessant resource conflict witnessed in Kogi State and how it affects livelihood and security of those involved and resource sustainability for the communities. They noted that these conflicts are most responsible for the unsustainable utilization of land and water resources as the trampling by the hooves of herds of cattle compacts the soil of farm land, destroy farm crops by the herdsmen, places restraint on effective utilization of arable farmland among other destruction of available resources. The scenario witnessed in Kogi state is a replication of what is happening in Kaduna, Niger states and other parts of the country. As grazing pasture shrinks, disputes have increased, particularly in the far north during the May to September rainy season, when herds invade farmland and eat crops. Therefore, the development of the grazing reserves and livestock routes has become imperative to avoid conflicts between pastoralists and farmers.
Two days of fighting between farmers and nomads in June, 2009 left three dead and a number of pastoralists‟ settlements burned in Plateau state. Local authorities expelled 700 pastoralists from Borno state in the northeast to stop clashes between settling nomads and indigenous farmers. The nomads had travelled 1,000km eastwards from Zamfara state in search of grazing land. Moreover, the livelihood of over 15 million pastoralists in northern Nigeria are threatened by decreasing access to water and pasture shortages linked to climate change.
The required change in perspective and problems described above requires new technical tools and planning strategies, grazing sites suitability mapping in GIS being one of the techniques for this change. The problem currently at hand include the resolution of conflicts between the multiple and diverse potential users of resources and the expectations to conserve resources that have been transformed and developed in the past.
Awogbade‟s (1987) opinion is that, there can be no solution to the intractable strife between pastoralists and farmers so long as the problems of grazing land use are not addressed. The issue of settling nomadic cattle rearers is a problem which for many years now has generated considerable discussion in Nigeria‟s public and government circles.
In Mediterranean regions for example, grazing activities frequently involve protected areas, either because they are permanently settled there or because they exploit pasture resources seasonally. The latter occurs owing to the presence of numerous extensive cattle and sheep farms that, following a very old and deep-rooted tradition, still today practice transhumance and migration to mountain pasture, with significant movements both in terms of the distances undertaken (at times even some hundreds of kilometers) aswell as changes in altitude. It is high time this plan is also adopted efficiently in Nigeria. Most often, the grazing of domestic animals within protected areas is not conducted in an appropriate fashion and comes into conflict with the other activities present there such as farming. Thus, usually treating with levity the aim and actions of protection pursued by the managing organization. This is manifested with the use of soils with poor or no suitability, with impractical methods of grazing and the systematic recourse to fire to clear pastureland. Improper ways of carrying out grazing and incorrect practices, besides causing irreversible environmental damage at times, it can also end up backfiring negatively on the growing of animals, bringing the possibility of their survival into jeopardy.
1.3      AIM AND OBJECTIVES
The aim of this research is on  the socio economic effects of grazing reserve in Nigeria
1.4       RESEARCH QUESTIONS
This research seeks to answer the following questions:

  1. What are the Evolution of Grazing Reserves in Nigeria?
  2. To what extend has grazing reserve impacted positively on the lives of pastorialist in Nigeria?
  3. What are the Nature of the problems facing grazing reserve system in Nigeria

1.5      JUSTIFICATION OF THE STUDY
This study is justified in the sense that, with the problems noted as regards to the various conflicts that have ensued between Fulani herdsmen and farmers across the country which arose from the destruction of farm lands by herds of cattle, and with the governments‟ willingness and strategies to curb these problems, there is a strong need for pastoralists to be given rights to land furnished with basic amenities for the settlement of their herds and their families.
Academically, the study will act as references materials and guide to future researchers who embark on similar study
1.6      SCOPE AND LIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY
This research covers the grazing reserve in Nigeria

Quality Of Teachers For Effective Teaching And Learning Of Geography In Secondary Schools

Quality Of Teachers For Effective Teaching And Learning Of Geography In Secondary Schools In Lere Local Government Area, Kaduna State

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Evaluation Of The Use Of Facebook In Cultural Propagation In Nigeria

Evaluation Of The Use Of Facebook In Cultural Propagation In Nigeria: Insights From University Of Portharcourt

CHAPTER ONE/ INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background to the Study

The concept of ‘’Global Village’’ earlier propagated by a Canadian communication scholar, philosopher and public intellectual, Herbert Marshall McLuhan in his Gutenberg Galaxy, 1962, has become a reality with the advent of the computer, Internet and social media. Today’s world has witnessed high level of dependence on the computer and computer-related technologies as well as the Internet. Interestingly, the Internet provides opportunity for the use of social media for communication either on a computer or computer-related devices such as smartphones and tablet computers. The use of social media networking sites has become part of the daily lives of some Nigerian youths. Facebook, WhatsApp YouTube, Cyworld, Google+, Twitter, Myspace, Tumblr, Instagram, 2go and other social networking sites are very popular in Nigeria. Such sites are commonly used for many reasons such as self-advertisement and private communication, social interaction, e-learning, business transaction, entertainment, sharing of pictures, and gospel, etc.
One key issue of social media communication in Nigeria is the argument about the spread of alien communication values, especially among youths. It has been noted that Nigerian youth communication has been negatively impacted by alien values such as radical shortening of words, and increasing use of symbol and shortcuts, with little or no adherence to traditional grammatical rules. Computers and the internet have made easy the process of creating and editing documents and applying features such as spell check and grammar check automatic. However, this has not translated to impeccable written or spoken language by Nigerian youths. Beyond grammar checks, communication among Nigerian youths on social networking sites has been corrupted. Internet users are at liberty to post whatever they want to post, not minding the ethical dimension of such posts. They are always comfortable with sexual talks, abuses, vent, snoop, bully, gossip, rumour peddling and self – advertisement etc.
The information and communication technology, mobile communication devices and the Internet are playing a definite and considerable role in people’s social lives. The cultural and lifestyle of individuals as well as their interpersonal relationships have been affected due to accessibility to various emerging communication media, as well as the speed of communication that the new media provide. These developing technology devices help to increase social interactions and new media awareness. For MacArthur Foundation (2008), “Social network sites, online games, video-sharing sites, and gadgets such as iPods and mobile phones are now fixtures of youth culture”. They opine that, these new technologies have permeated young lives that one finds it hard to believe that less than a decade ago they had barely regis­tered in the lives of youth. The youth spend more time on social media. They regard the web, cell phones, Blackberries, ipods, ipads and others as essential tools for living. This research explores that the new media might be one of the factors responsible for social changes in the area of Nigerian cultural values among Nigerian young adult and that social nuances, cultural values may not be taken into consideration in the pursuit of developing new technologies for social interaction. Because of this an empirical study is conducted to examine how the new media affects the cultural identity of young adults in Nigeria. In view of this, this study will look at the role of new media in fostering Nigerian culture. In view of the above assertion, this paper Evaluate The Use Of Facebook In Cultural Propagation In Nigeria: Insights From University Of Portharcourt

1.2 Statement of the Problem

Communication starts from intrapersonal, interpersonal, group to mass communication. Mass communication has passed through phases, from the earliest book publishing through newspapering, radio broadcasting, television transmitting, film shows and now the internet surfing. In all of these phases, the internet era seems to have more effect on the kinds of communication contents (values) conveyed. Today, Internet has created a global community with everyone saying what they like with common language such: ‘what’s up on WhatsApp’, ‘follow me on twitter’, ‘check my status on Facebook page’, ‘visit us at www or download video’. This new communication order is said to have some kinds of negative impact on the day-to-day communication of the youths who are the preponderate users of the internet through social media.
Africans/Nigerians are known to be hospitable, friendly and live communal life instead of individual life, they are also known for their morality and respect for authority and elders but these fundamental features of our identity and culture are undergoing change.  The question is what then is being passed to this generation? How is it being done? And is the new media a contributing factor to these changes?

1.3 Objectives of the Study

The broad objective of this study is to ascertain The Use Of Facebook In Cultural Propagation In Nigeria: Insights From University Of Portharcourt
The specific objectives are to:

  1. To examine the level of exposure of young adults in Nigeria to facebook
  2. To investigate the media activities students of University Of Portharcourt engage in?
  3. To evaluate whether facebook project Nigeria cultural symbols
  4. To analyze the influence of cultural behavior of young adults in Nigeria

1.4 Research Questions/Hypotheses

For this research, 3´three research questions and two hypotheses are formulated.
What is the level of exposure of young adults in Nigeria to facebook?

  • What media activities/practices do students of University Of Portharcourt engage in?
  • To what extent do facebook project Nigeria cultural symbols?
  • Do facebook influence the cultural behavior of young adults in Nigeria?

1.5 Scope of the study

The work is on the Evaluation Of The Use Of Facebook In Cultural Propagation In Nigeria: Insights From University Of Portharcourt.

1.6 Conceptual Definition Of Terms

Social Media: social media otherwise known as new media is a form of electronic communication which facilitates interaction based on certain interests and characteristics on web2.0 technology. The term ‘Web 2.0’ was introduced into use 2004 by Dale Dougherty, a vice-president of O’Reilly Media Inc. at a discussion on the future of the web (O’Reilly, 2005). For him it was an attempt to explore the more potent power of the web that would go beyond the exploits already achieved by the Web 1.0. Web 2.0 is the term used to describe a variety of web sites and applications that allow any person to create and share online information or material that they have created. Such technology allows anyone to create, share, collaborate & communicate with others at any time. Web 2.0 does not require any web design or publishing skills to participate, making it easy for people to create and publish or communicate their works to the world. Many of such Web 2.0 based websites include amongst other social media platforms such as: Facebook, WhatsApp YouTube, Cyworld, Google+, Twitter, Myspace, Tumblr, Instagram and 2go amongst others. Social media is a powerful platform for social interaction, using highly accessible and scalable publishing techniques. Asemah (2011) sees social media as a digital interactive media. Social media uses web-based technologies to transform and broadcast media monologues into social dialogues. Social media networking sites support democratization of knowledge and information and transform people from content consumers to content producers. They are elements of the new media technologies that provide the fastest means of communication to users; an online community that supports one-on-one social interaction. According to Sambe (2014), social media is a new media technology, a product of Information and Communication Technology (ICT). Social media has altered our communication patterns by way of providing instant feedback, viral content, popular accessibility and availability. Social media can be classified into different categories based on users’ interest such as social networks- Facebook, Twitter, LinkedIn; media sharing networks-Instagram, Snapchat, YouTube; discussion forum-Reddit, Quora, Digg; bookmaking and content curation networks-Pinterest, Flipboard; consumer review networks-Yelp, Zomato, Trip Advisor; blogging and publishing networks-WordPress, Tumblr, Medium; interest-based networks-Polyvore, Etsy, Fancy; social shopping networks-Goodreads, Houzz, Last.fm; sharing economy networks-Airbnb, Uber, Taskrabbit; Anonymous social media-Whispor, Ask.fm and After School etc.
Nigerian Youth: National Baseline Youth Survey defines Nigerian youth to be (15–35 years). However, for the purpose of this study; Nigerian youths are 15-35 years who are social media users. According to the 2012 youth survey report by the National Bureau of Statistics, youths of working age in Nigeria stands at 70 million persons in a population of 166 million.
 
Communication Patterns: In the context of this study, it implies the way language is used on the social media platforms by social media users which includes, word spelling, syntax, semantics, massage (content) of the communication with respect to ethical consideration.
Communication of Values: Communication of values is the sharing of ideas, thoughts, feelings and emotions among individuals. In every communication experience, there is usually a sharing of what the communicant believes is right or wrong. What is right is dependent on his or her values. In the social media environment, media users share a number of things they feel are right. However, quite a number of issues have been raised concerning communication values on the social media. One of the major concerns is attributed to the works of Max Scheler who argued that anonymity turns people to irresponsible individuals (Vevere, 2015). Social media communication does not support one-on-one conversation; it is highly mediated, impersonal, encourages free expression of feelings, thoughts, ideas and is anonymous in nature. These attributes of social media communication have posed a serious challenge to the kind of values shared on the social media domain. In communication philosophy it is believed that the primary access to the realm of values is through acts of feeling and preference that are directed upon objects and persons bearing the values. In any concrete situation several values may be shared including nude pictures, sex and sexism, sexually explicit materials, and sexual violence, self-promotion, haste speech, rumour, gossip, use of slang and language constructs which defies the Standard English grammar rules. The dialogic philosophy of communication illustrates the philosophy of language as a feasible communication model that is applied universally. The social media vocabulary with reason refers to the praxis today is pathetically instrumentalized and confused when searching for the protonorms of new communication morality, and semantic exactness.

ROLE OF COMMERCIAL BANKS ON THE FINANCIAL PERFORMANCE OF SMALL SCALE BUSINESS ENTERPRISE IN NIGERIA

ABSTRACT 

This study is to ascertain the extent to which commercial banks have helped to finance small scale business enterprisein Sokoto. To achieve this study adopted a survey  research which employed the use of simple random sampling technique was employed and SMEs where selected which constitute the sample size of the research. Structured questionnaire was designed to facilitate the collection of the relevant data which was used for the analysis. Descriptive statistics which involves simple percentage and chi-square. The findings indicate that the operations of commercial banks towards SMEs have grown phenomenally in the last 3 years, driven largely by expanding informal sector activities. The study also reveals the challenges faced by SMEs, which has been addressed in this research. Commercial banks traditional lend to medium and large enterprise, which are judged to be credit worthy. They avoid doing business with small and medium scale industry because the associated

CHAPTER ONE

 
INTRODUCTION
 

  • BACKGROUND TO PROBLEM

 
Small and medium enterprises are believed to be the engine room for the development of any economy, because they form the bulk of business activities in a growing economy like that of Nigeria. This is manifested in the following ways, Employment generation, rural development, Economic growth and Industrialization, Better Utilization of Indigenous Resources. In the past, Nigeria’s over dependence on oil which really exposed the economy to unprecedented macro-economic instability resulting from the effects of external shocks to oil prices. The world economic recession and the sustained slump in oil prices posed a serious challenge on Nigeria economy which accounted for a reduction in our external Reserves and also diminished on the nation’s capacity to finance much of its development needs. It was also observed that the real GDP growth slows to 2.2% from 2009; population growth rate will climb to 2.5%. Such situation could plunge the country into economic embarrassment and posed a major challenge to the Government. However, with the trend of this event, the Government under vision 20:2020 program came up with undoubtedly consolidated empowerment program called the National Economic and Empowerment Development Strategy (NEEDS) and other reforms which
 
imperatively leads to the recognition given to the development of SMEs The SME sector is positioned generate employment, create wealth, reduce the prevalence of poverty and sustain economic growth and development. Commercial banks provide broad range of financial services such as deposits, loans, payment services, money transfers, and insurance to poor and low-income households and, their micro-enterprises. M.S Robinson asserts that ‘if it were widely available, institutional commercial banks could improve the economic activities and the quality of life of hundreds of millions of people in the developing world”. However it is generally agreed that micro-credit given to those of the poor who do not have a capacity to repay can increase their poverty. Until the early 1960s, many economists viewed the continued existence of small-scale enterprisein less developed countries as justified by scarify of capital and administrative experience. It was often argued that with economic growth, the small, traditional type of enterprise would, in one sector after another, be superseded by modem forms of large-scale production. In order to ensure an orderly transition, small enterprisewere seen to deserve support, but mainly in sectors where modem methods could not immediately applied. In the mid-160s a new approach to small to medium-scale enterprise (SME) development began to emerge due to several factors. First, there was growing concern over low employment elasticity of modem large-scale production. It was claimed
 
that even with more optimal policies, this form of industrial organizational was unable to absorb a significance proportion of the rapidly expanding labour force (Cherney et al 1974; ILO, 1973). Second, there was widespread recognition that the benefits of economic growth were not being fairly distributed, and that the use of large-scale, capital intensive techniques was partly to blame (McCormick, 1988; House, 1981; Cherney et al 1974). Third, empirical studies revealed that the causes of poverty were not confined to unemployment, and that most of the poor were employed in a large variety of small-scale production (Noor Mohamed 1985). This suggests a new role of small industries, in what has come to be labeled “the urban informal sector”. Small, labor-intensive enterprisewere seen not only to increase employment, but also to increase the living standards of the poor. They were also thought to be capable of providing a new dynamic of economic growth. The new objective was not just to stop to retreat, but to promote the small-scale sector (House, 1981; Schmitze, 1982; GiamartinoS, 1991). This change in approach was accompanies by a shift of focus towards a “rurally orientated smallholder” (ROSH) industrialization strategy, well-articulated in Kilby (1975), Child (1976), House (1978), Noor Mohamed (1’985), and Olofin (1990), among others. While the Word Bank 91992) and others have tended to favour the ROSH implementation strategy by assigning the major role to the private sector,
 
there are those who favour its implementation by assigning a major role to government (Olofin 1990, Noormhamed, 1985). Assigning the major role to the private sector has its appeal in the fact that the private sector has the resources needed to implement the strategy. But the proponents of assigning the role to the government are aware that in many developing economies; government is the major mover of the economy with only a small and sometimes weak private sector. Thus, they argue that assigning such an important role to the private sector would not work. Besides, for the strategy to produce an optimal effect on the wellbeing of the people, the social environment has to be considered something the private sector may not be willing to do. Kilby (1969) Sees SMEs as a quasi sponge for urban employment and a provider of inexpensive consumer goods with little or  no import content, serving an important pressure-releasing and welfare- augmenting function. SMEs also contribute to long-run industrial growth by producing an increasing number of firms that grow up and out of the small-sector. Most previous studies throughout African treat the information sector as essentially homogenous in its characteristics (Morris and Pitt, 1995; Bewayo, 1995; Ekpenyong and Nyong; 1992). Recent research suggests that government policy should be more narrowly targeted to subsectors within the informal sector (Parker and Torres, 1994). This study examines survey data in order to evaluate the characteristics of small-
 
scale manufacturers that make it more difficult for them to be profitable and the particular problems that they face which may have contributed to their poor performance. Since her independent in 1960, Nigeria has been trying to meet the yearnings and aspirations of her teeming population, especially in the area of provision of employment. Unfortunately, not much has been achieved in this respect. Given the importance of ‘small’ and ‘very small’ enterprise in the creation of employment, this study seeks to evaluate the financing of microenterprises in Lagos State of Nigeria by identifying the problems of financing very small enterprises (VSE’s). However, the growth of the country’s economy has not been without problems. For instance, Omopariola (1978) notes three successive phases can be discerned in the economic history of Nigeria. The first phase, dating back to 1900, “was the pleasant economy characterized by static and subsistence product” and a “high birth rate which was equally matched by high death rate” (P.15 resulting in a low population growth rate. The second phase, which occurred in the middle of the nineteenth century, was’ a dynamic export-oriented economy” Omopariola (1978) reiterated further that during this economic phase, “Nigeria had a steady growth in her economy which was stimulated primarily by agricultural exports during the first three decades of the twentieth century.” (Ibid, p.16) the economic, starting from the collapse of international trade during the world economic crisis grinded
 
to a halt in its growth in 1929 and remained more or less stagnant until 1945. Form 1954 until the outbreak of the war of unity (civil war) in 1967 and up to the end of the war in 1970, “Nigeria experienced steady economic growth” (Ibid, P. 16). The third Phase, which has its roots in 1960 when the country attained political independence from the British colonialists, has been described as the indigenized economy. This is still the phase under which the Nigerian economy is characterized. Thus, over the years, the Nigerian economy has been going through a number of developmental stages and its growth has not been smooth. Although the economy continues to hold out a bright promise of growth, this has been hampered by factors such as under-productivity, unemployment, heavily depreciated national currency, inadequate infrastructure facilities and structural defects in the country’s industrial framework. The scope of this study focuses on the latter factors, structural defects in the nation’s industrial framework. A business whether small or big, simple or complex, private or public, etc. is created to provide competitive prices. Business in Nigeria has been classified as small, medium and large. However, a small scale industry can be defined by the criteria of project costs, capital, cost turnover by the employee, etc. the federal and state ministries of industry and commerce have adopted the criterion of value of installed fixed capital to determine what a small scale industry is, in this respect, the value has
 
varied  from  N60,000  in  1972,  N159,  000  in  1975,  N250,000  in 1979,
 
N500,000 in 1986, to a fixed investment of not more than N2,000,000 (Two Million Naira) in 1992. This figure is exclusive of a building and subject to government determination and land prevailing objectives of public policy. In the wake of SFEM, and SAP, this value has now been reviewed and subsequently, increased to five million naira. Since this happened, there may be a need to classify the small scale industry into MICRO and SUPER MICRO business, with a view to providing adequate incentives and protection for the former. In the meantime, any business or enterprises below the upper limit of N250,000 and whose annual turnover exceeds that of a cottage industry currently put at N5,000 per annum is a small scale industry. The National Directorate of Employment (NDE) concept of a small scale industry has been fixed to a maximum of N35,

  1. Contributed significantly to the growth of the Gross Domestic Product (GDP), employment generation and exports. The sector now includes not only SSI units but also small scale services and business enterprise (SSSBEs) and is thus referred to as the small enterprises sectors.

  STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM

 
Small and medium enterprises have not made the desired impact on the Nigerian economy in-spite of all the efforts and support of succeeding administrations and governments gives a cause for concern. The
 
expectation has been that, after the initial take off of the small scale enterprises, the business should be able to raise funds from the formal sector especially MFIs or banking enterpriseto expand its operations. This has not been the case for a number of reasons (Sule, 1986; Inang and Ukpong, 1996; Iniodu and Udomesiet, 2004);

  • The perception of small and medium enterprises as high risks;

 

  • Inability of the SMEs to prepare acceptable or viable banking business plans;
  • Poor record keeping, especially of financial operations which at times make the entrepreneur draw money than expected from the business either for personal or family use;
  • Discriminatory cultural practices which at times make it impossible or difficult for women to borrow or own assets or land titles;
  • Weak capacity on the part of banks to down-scale their lending to SMEs; and
  • High transaction cost of small and often segmented

 
The study will examine problems associated with the role of commercial banks in financing small scale industry in Nigeria.
It will give information on the possible areas for in provident.
 
Furthermore, the study will help commercial banks to assess and appraisal their role in financing small scale industry in Nigeria.
 
Moreover, suggestions and recommendations made in this paper will help policy makers formulate new economic policies maintain or modify the existing one.
It will equally serve as guidelines to researchers who may wish to decide with this study in the future.
It will also help small scale entrepreneurs to make sufficient preparation in their request for credit assistance.
It will guide the entrepreneurs in making credits demands that are compliance with government monetary policy.

  OBJECTIVE OF THE STUDY

 
Since the importance of SMEs forwards the development of any country’s economy, as already discussed. This write up is aim at achieving the following questions.

  1. To highlight the different sources of finance available to small and medium industries?
  2. To examine the role of commercial banks in satisfying the financial needs of SMEs in
  3. To examine method to reduce formality needed for financing the entrepreneurs by commercial banks.

 

  RESEARCH HYPOTHESIS

 
HO1. There is no significant relationship between Financing of small and medium scale Enterprise and Commercial Banks.
HO2: There is significant relationship between commercial banks and lending to small scale business enterpriseand also in meeting the needs of small and medium scale Enterprises

  SCOPE OF STUDY

 
The scope of the study is an appraisal of commercial banks in financing small scale business enterprisein Nigeria, a case study of first bank limited.
Commercial banks adhere strictly to the rule of secret; in banking thus they refused to release information.
It   will   guide   the  entrepreneurs in   making  credit  demand  that  are compliance with government monetary policy.
Finally it will help the entrepreneurs to display competence in preparing justification for their project; it is rear to see most of them coming up with cash projections, projected balance sheets.

  LIMITATION OF STUDY

 
However, there are constraint imposed on the researcher this includes the following.

  1. Time a study of this nature, needs a relatively long time during which information for accurate or at least near accurate inferences

 
could be drawn. The period of the study was short, hence time posed as a constraint to the researcher.

  1. Cost: The researcher would have extent the survey to areas. But limitations here included cost of transportation to source for materials and cost of type setting the already completed
  2. Dearth (Scarcity) of statistical data:

 
Lack of statistical data from our financial institutions like central bank of Nigeria (CBN) ministry of financial and economic development, commercial and merchant bank posed constraints.
Commercial banks adhere strictly to the rule of secret; in banking thus they refused to release information.

  SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY

 
In the modern times, industrial production requires the procurement of equipment, machineries and other inputs. The capital required in procuring the requirements in limited in supply and very few industrialists have access to it
Considering the type of collateral security required by the banks which must be fulfilled before granting loans.
Since Commercial Banks act as intermediaries between surplus and deficit or as a bridge between scattered pockets of savers and the business
 
community desirous of loans for investment, at the end of this research work the following will be attained;
SMEs industrialist will be able to know some sources of finance and choose amongst them the best.
Commercial Banks will know how effective and efficient they have been towards economic development.
Commercial Banks will be able to make some adjustments in their lending processes.

THE SOCIO-ECONOMIC IMPACTS OF GOODLUCK JONATHAN'S TRANSFORMATION AGENDA

Transformation: According to the Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary (7th edition), transformation means complete change in appearance or character of something. The Transformation Agenda refers to strengthening government institutions to facilitate effective coordination of fiscal monetary policies and for effective and optimal performance The international system is symbiotic in nature, leading to the notion that no country can
exist as an island. Since no state can avoid relating with others, states must frame their interactions systematically to aid the advancement of national interests in its relations with other
states. Foreign policy is therefore an integral part of the activities of the modern state. A state without foreign policy therefore can be likened to a ship without a sailor (Abdul & Ibrahim,2013).
In order to remain relevant in the international system, a state must articulate its foreign policy in the manner that it captures the state’s national interest. As Eze (2010, p. 79) succinctly
puts it, “every nation’s foreign policy is or should be in service of its national interest.” African-nationalism and Pan-Africanism were two factors that informed foreign policy thinking and orientation at independence and inception of Nigeria’s foreign policy. In underscoring these averments, the foreign policy thrust of the country has been guided by the following: African unity and independence, peaceful settlement of disputes, capacity to exercise
hegemonic influence in the region, non-alignment principle, non-interference in the internalaffairs of states, and economic cooperation and development within the region (Ukwuije, 2015,
p. 110). It is crucial to identify that the approach that guides the formation and execution of foreign policy objectives is dependent on some variables within and outside the state (Odubajo,
2017). These variables can be subsumed under the domestic and external environments of foreign policy. The environment of foreign policy consists of the domestic and external factors,
structures, dynamics and processes that guide the actions of foreign policy actors (Alli, 2010). Gitelson (1980) highlights that some of the major variables that affect the foreign policy choices
of states (especially small or medium powers) include: the domestic situation of the state, the nature of its leadership base, and the state’s foreign policy orientations. The domestic situation of
the Nigerian state is affected by factors such as ethnicity, religious bigotry, communal clashes, civil unrests, and militancy, to mention but a few; while the nature of the state’s foreign policy may be influenced by the personal idiosyncrasies of the individuals that represent the state in the foreign policy-making process. The state’s foreign policy orientation refers to the nature of foreign policy pursued in terms of being dependent or independent, proactive or reactive, bold orconservative. Other variables, according to Babawale (1988) include: the nature of a state’s economy, historical experiences, and the nature of the political society. Specific to the Nigerian foreign policy sphere, Ashiru (2013) identifies a number of factors that have determined the nature of Nigeria’s foreign policy since independence and have formed the basis of the domestic and external environments of Nigeria’s foreign policy. These determinants include: the eruption of multiple power centers in regions and regional economic
groupings such as the European Union (EU) and Economic Community of West African States(ECOWAS); formation of the African Union (AU) (formerly known as Organization of AfricanUnity (OAU)); the waves of dictatorships and democratic transitions across Africa and the Middle East; Nigeria’s increasing population; and the continuous existence of domestic andexternal challenges arising from issues like terrorism, climate change, arms proliferation, transnational crimes, oil bunkering, militancy, and migration, among others. A study conducted by Fayomi, Chidozie & Ajayi (2015) submits that the country’s foreign policy efforts have beencountered by an image predicament embedded in domestic crises experienced over the years.

Analysis of President Muhammadu Buhari's Diplomatic Relations With G8 Nations

Analysis of President Muhammadu Buhari’s Diplomatic Relations With G8 Nations
This project work re-assesses Nigeria’s diplomatic relation under the president muhammadu Buhari’s democratic regime of 2015-2019 . The work also evaluates Nigerian foreign policy in retrospect and analyzes the major unresolved issues that now exist as challenges to foreign policy in the Fourth Republic (1999-2019).
As an evaluative study with reliance on secondary data, the study adopts the linkage approach as the theoretical framework which highlights the crucial impact of the interplay between the domestic and external environments on Nigeria’s foreign policy. The content analysis of data guided the findings, discussions and recommendations of the project work. Findings reveal an urgent need for restrategizing and re-formulation of Nigeria’s foreign policy to capture the internal and external dynamics of the Nigerian state, in order to maintain respect and relevance in the international system.
TO CONTINUE READING THE FULL WORK, CLICK THE RED BUTTON BELOW

IMPACT OF THE RURAL FINANCE INSTITUTION BUILDING PROGRAMME ON THE SOCIO ECONOMIC LIFE OF BENEFICIARIES IN ANAMBRA STATE NIGERIA

ABSTRACT
The overall purpose of the study was to evaluate the impact of rural finance institution building programme on the socio-economic life of beneficiaries in Anambra State, Nigeria. Specifically, the study determined the food security status of the beneficiaries and non-beneficiaries; the impact of RUFIN on beneficiaries’ socio-economic life; ascertained the perceived problems of beneficiaries in utilising RUFIN services; and identified possible strategies for improving performance of RUFIN. The study was carried out in Awka North, Orumba North and Ayamelum LGAs of Anambra State, Nigeria. Reflexive and matching method of quasi-experimental design was used. About 60 RUFIN beneficiaries and 60 non RUFIN beneficiaries constituted the population. Multistage sampling technique was used in selecting respondents. Data were collected using interview schedule. Descriptive and inferential statistics were used in data analysis. The findings revealed that the majorities of RB and NRB were female. The mean age of RB and NRB were 42.7years and 40.3years, respectively. Also, the majorities of RB and NRB were married. About 95% and 98%of RB and NRB, respectively were literate. The average household size of 6 was obtained among RB and RNB. About 55% and 57% of RB and NRB, respectively were into farming as major occupation. The average years of farming experience for RB and NRB were 17.3 and 15.9, respectively. Average amount of loan obtained by beneficiaries was N67, 266.70 at an average payback period of one year. On the average, RB obtained loan once since programme inception. The findings revealed that sex and years of farming experience significantly influenced the amount of loan obtained while age, significantly influenced the numbers of loan obtained by beneficiaries. The result revealed that the majority relied on friends/neighbour as source of information on RUFIN. Friends/neighbour was also the most used source of information on agricultural activities by non-beneficiaries. The results show that the majority of RB and NRB were food insecure. The findings show that RB significantly differed from NRB in the nature of food eaten in the household. The result reveals that RB were better-off than NRB; though insignificantly, in the following areas: total farm size owned in hectares, total annual income from trade, number of motorcycle owned, number of radio set owned, number of mobile set owned, number of generator owned, number of fan owned, number of personal house, number of rooms occupied, number of mattress owned, number of furnished chair owned, number of association belonged, number of rabbit owned, number of pig owned, and number of livelihood means. The findings also show that non-beneficiaries were significantly better than beneficiaries in the number of poultry owned and total annual income from farm. The result further shows that there were significant differences in favour of RB in the following items: access to financial institutions for loan, level of living when compared to others in the community, access to extension services, ease in marketing farm produce, access to modern farm inputs, access to tractor services, and access to education. The findings show that small in size of loanable amount, high interest rate, unavailability of loan when needed, short period of payback, and high initial deposit were major constraints to utilisation of RUFIN services. Also, the responses of the farmers on the constraints were extracted and named loan term constraints, managerial constraints and system embedded constraints. The major possible strategies to enhancing utilisation of RUFIN services among farmers were giving farmers loan at subsidised rate, strengthening the legal backings of group activities, exposing farmers to financial literacy trainings, trainings on possible areas of income diversification, increasing the volume of loanable amount, promotion of policy on the establishment of commercial banks in rural areas, access to loan from financial institutions on a personal basis,  making loan interest free, and increase in length of payback.
 
 
CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background information
Rural finance encompasses the full range of financial services such as loans, savings, insurance, payment and money transfer services, offered by formal and informal financial institutions and used in rural areas by households and enterprises as a means of improving or sustaining their livelihood choices (Making Finance Work for Africa, 2008). It includes agricultural finance, which refers to financial services ranging from short, medium, and long-term loans, leasing, to crop and livestock insurance and covering the entire agricultural value chain. Agricultural finance is dedicated to financing agriculture related activities such as input supply, production, distribution, wholesale, processing and marketing (FAO, 2016).
Absence of efficiently operating rural financial institution is a serious constraint on sustainable rural economic growth in Africa (International Bank for Reconstruction and Development, 2003). This is because two thirds of Africa’s populations are resident in rural areas and requires adequate finance for their economic activities which are mostly agriculture based (International Labour Organization, 2014). The Food and Agricultural Organization (FAO) (2004) points out that lack of access to finance in rural areas and in the agricultural value chain could be linked to slow and uneven entry of formal financial institutions into rural areas. The FAO added that, factors such as poor infrastructure and widely dispersed populations in rural areas raise transaction and information costs, thus further hindering the spread of financial services. In addition, title and property rights can be difficult to verify in rural areas, posing problems in the use of collateral to obtain fund. Subsidized lending programmes for rural recipients, seasonal nature of farmers’ income, long maturation period of farm produce, and high risk factor associated with farming have also contributed to obstructing the development of a sustainable rural banking sector (FAO, 2004).
Despite these difficulties, formal rural and agricultural finance have been making advances in Africa, with innovative financial services and improved risk management on both the client and institution sides with the sole aim of bringing buoyancy and stability to rural economy. The most promising approaches include flexible credit schemes, value-chain finance, insurance products, promotion of financial literacy and the use of new technologies like GPS mapping (FAO, 2004). Prominent examples are the introduction of index-based weather insurance schemes in Malawi, financial literacy campaigns in Ghana, the spread of mobile banking in Kenya (FAO, 2004) and the Rural Finance Institution Building Programme (RUFIN) in Nigeria (IFAD, 2008).
While it is well understood in Nigeria that financial exclusion of the rural population stunts development, fewer than 2% of rural households in Nigeria are estimated to have access to any sort of institutional finance (World Bank, 2008). A study by Obanasa and Maduekwe (2013) cites the improvement of financial systems as a key growth pillar for the agricultural sector. Lack of rural access to financial services in Nigeria not only retards rural economic growth, but also increases poverty and inequality (World Bank, 2008).  Financial access increases incomes through productive investment, helps create employment opportunities, facilitates investments in health and education, and reduces the vulnerability of the poor by helping them to smooth their income patterns over time (World Bank, 2008).
Aside from the launching of Federal Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development (FMARD) in 1966, to cater for rural development projects and programmes in Nigeria, the following are efforts by Nigerian government in achieving sustainable rural finance: establishment of the Nigerian Agricultural and Cooperative Bank (NACB) in 1973, Rural Banking Programme (RBP) in 1977, People’s Bank of Nigeria (PBN) in 1989, Community Banking System (CBS) in 1990, Self-Help Groups (SHG) Linkage Programme in 1991, Family Economic Advancement Programme (FEAP) in 1994. Efforts made after 1990’s include: establishment of Nigerian Agricultural Cooperative and Rural Development Bank (NACRDB) in 2000 now known as Bank of Agriculture (BoA), Trust Fund Model (TFM) in 2001, National Poverty Eradication Programme (NAPEP) in 2001, Small and Medium Enterprises Equity Investment Scheme (SMEEIS) in 2001, Agricultural Credit Support Scheme (ACSS) in 2006 (World Bank, 2008), and RUFIN in 2006 (IFAD, 2008). Some of these programmes ended without achieving the core objective for which the programmes were launched. This is evident in the current level of poverty in the rural areas which stood at 80% as at 2012 (IFAD, 2012) as against 41% in 1985, 49% in 1992, and 51% in 1996 (Aigbokhan, 2000). The failures could be linked to incoherence and/or default in implementation of programmes policy documents. It could also be associated with lack of clarity on the extent to which evaluation have informed evidence based policy.
Evaluation refers to objective assessments of a planned, ongoing, or completed project, programme, or policy. It is the systematic review and assessment of the benefits, quality and value of a programme or activity (Ajayi, 2005). According to FAO (2003), evaluation is purposely done to determine achievements of development programmes vis-a-vis the set aims / objectives. Food and Agricultural Organization (2003) also pointed out that evaluation techniques can serve to improve implementation and efficiency of programmes after interventions have begun, provide evidence as to the cost efficiency and impact of a specific intervention within and between policy sectors. Evaluation especially continuous / on-going and stage by stage evaluation are important because they expose lapses associated with achievement of programme objectives thereby affording opportunities for adjustment.
Impact evaluation on the other hand, assesses the intended and unintended changes that can be attributed to a particular intervention after about 5 to 10 years of existence (World Bank Group, 2012). Impact evaluation is structured to answer the question: how would outcomes such as participants’ well-being could have changed if the intervention had not been undertaken? It seeks to answer cause-and-effect questions. In other words, impact evaluation looks for the changes in outcome that are directly attributable to a programme (Gertler, Martinez, Premand, Rawlings and Vermeersch, 2011).
Rural Finance Institution Building Programme which was initiated in 2006 and became effective in 2010 is currently in its impact year (RUFIN, 2011). The programme is a strategic means by which the rural micro financing sector will be developed and strengthened in order to deliver adequate, efficient and sustainable financial services to the rural poor. The objective of the programme is to develop and strengthen the performance of member-based non-bank rural finance institutions to enable them develop to sustainable Rural Microfinance Institutions (RMFIs) and establish linkages between them and formal financial institutions in Nigeria. Rural Finance Institution Building Programme lays the foundation for the long-term development of a sustainable rural financial system that will eventually operate throughout the country (FMARD, 2015; Nigerian Investment Promotion Commission [NIPC], 2015; RUFIN, 2011).
It is being financed by the International Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD), the Ford Foundation, the Federal Government of Nigeria, state governments of Nigeria, Central Bank of Nigeria (CBN), participating banks and micro finance institutions (MFIs) in Nigeria (IFAD, 2015; RUFIN, 2010). Under the programme, the following categories of non-bank micro finance institutions i.e. cooperative societies, unions and cooperative finance agencies, neo micro finance institutions and grassroots/informal finance institutions, would be supported in the needed areas of capacity building and access to loanable funds with appropriate linkages to micro finance banks/institutions and commercial banks for credit delivery to the rural populace (FMARD, 2015; RUFIN, 2010).
Rural Finance Institution Building Programme is currently operational in 12 Nigerian states with 3 LGA from each of the states in participation (36 LGA are involved in the federation). Participating states in the north-west / north-east zone are Adamawa, Bauchi, Katsina, and Zamfara State, while Benue, Nasarawa, Lagos, and Oyo States are participating in south-west / north-central zone and Anambra, Imo, Edo, and Akwa-Ibom States are in the south-east/ south-south zone (NIPC, 2015; RUFIN, 2011).
The programme is coordinated by a central programme unit based in Abuja and is assisted by three zonal programme management units (ZPMU), which are; ZPMU in Owerri, Imo State covering south-south and south-east Zones, ZPMU in Ibadan, Oyo State covering north-central and south-west zones, and ZPMU in Bauchi State covering north-east and north-west zones. Each participating state has a programme support office and is headed by an assistant micro finance officer and assisted by a data management officer (NIPC, 2015). Rural Finance Institution Building Programme with the structure elucidated in a manner that will allow for efficiency, demands an assessment in line with the programme goal of enhancing rural livelihood in which finance is a key component.
1.2 Problem statement
The problem of rural financing programmes had been recognized and several attempts made to redress them, but success is yet to be attained (IFAD, 2009). The same source indicates that in most rural communities of Nigeria; Anambra State inclusive, access to affordable and timely financial services is extremely difficult because of high risk associated with lending to rural people. It is risky because members of the communities are scattered in many isolated rural locations, and are mainly illiterate and not conversant with the language and technicalities of existing financial institutions (IFAD, 2009; FAO, 2004).
Access to finance had also been established to be directly linked to food security. According to Ezeama, Ibeh, Adinma, Emelumadu and Adogu (2015) food insecurity is a major problem among households in Anambra State. The authors associated the food insecurity to recent financial crisis which had contributed to increase in food prices and reduction in the purchasing power of household incomes.
In effort to address these obvious difficulties and problems, RUFIN was introduced with the goal; to improve the income, food security and general living conditions of poor rural households. The programme intends to reach out to an estimated population of 345,000 families, of which 138,000 (40%) will be women-headed households, with financial services that will be improved in terms of quality, quantity and access to deposit, loan and transfer services. These families include smallholder farmers and rural entrepreneurs such as craftsmen and petty traders. This is to enable them invest in improving productivity in agriculture and small business.
It is expected that the intervention of RUFIN on the beneficiaries’ initial conditions should result to changes in their socio-economic status (such as changes in production practices, productivity, living conditions, livelihood assets etc.) and food security status. After about five years (2010- 2015) of RUFIN’s existence in Anambra State, some socio-economic impact questions become pertinent: What impact does this programme have on socio-economic life of beneficiaries? What is the food security status of beneficiaries? What are perceived problems of beneficiaries in utilizing RUFIN services? And what are the perceived constraints to the implementation of RUFIN programme? The need to provide answers to the above question forms the basis of impact evaluation in the proposed study.
1.3 Purpose of the study
The general purpose of the study was to evaluate the impact of Rural Finance Institution Building Programme in Anambra State, Nigeria.
Specifically, the study sought to:

  1. determine the food security status of beneficiaries and non-beneficiaries;
  2. determine the impact of the programme on beneficiaries’ socio-economic life (production, social status etc.);
  3. ascertain perceived constraints to beneficiaries in utilizing RUFIN services; and
  4. identify possible strategies for improving performance of RUFIN.

1.4 Hypothesis

  1. Socio-economic characteristics of beneficiaries have no significant influence on the amount of loan obtained.
  2. Socio-economic characteristics of beneficiaries have no significant influence on the numbers of loan obtained.
  3. There is no significant difference between the socio-economic life of beneficiaries and non-beneficiaries as of 2015.
  4. There is no significant difference between the food security status of beneficiaries and non-beneficiaries in Anambra State.

1.5 Significance of the study
Impact results of the programme will guide programme planners and executors on possible areas to improve in the programme. It could also service them with information to either halt, re-strategize or launch into other states that are not currently participating in RUFIN. The identified constraints to programme implementation and possible strategies to resolving them will serve as a guide in planning and executing subsequent intervention programmes.
Policy makers, donor agencies, and intervention programme planners will be furnished with relevant and necessary information on programme impact with which they can use as working tool in initiating, sponsoring and executing better policy for the development of mankind.
The findings will be published in journals and serve as reference materials for future researchers. The study will stimulate further studies in the area.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Title page i
Certification ii
Dedication iii
Acknowledgement iv
Table of contents vi
List of tables viii
List of figures ix
Abstract x
CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background information 1
1.2 Problem statement 5
1.3 Purpose of the study 7
1.4 Hypothesis 7
1.5 Significance of the study 7
CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Concept of rural finance 9
2.2 Financial interventions in rural areas of Nigeria 10
2.3 Paradigm shift in agricultural financing 21
2.4 Rural Finance Institution Building Programme 22
2.5 Concept of food security 25
2.6 Constraints to utilizing rural finance services 35
2.7 Strategies for improving rural finance services 39
2.8 Concept of impact evaluation 44
2.9 Theoretical framework 47
2.10 Conceptual framework 56
CHAPTER THREE: METHODOLOGY
3.1 Study area 59
3.2 Research design 60
3.3 Population and sampling procedure 60
3.4 Instruments for data collection 62
3.5 Measurement of variables 62
3.6 Data analysis 66
CHAPTER FOUR: RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
4.1 Socio economic characteristics of the respondents 68
4.2 Food security status of beneficiaries and non-beneficiaries 79
4.3 Impact of RUFIN on beneficiaries’ socioeconomic possessions 83
4.4 Perceived constraints to utilisation of RUFIN services 88
4.5 Possible strategies to improve RUFIN programme 93
CHAPTER FIVE: SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS
5.1 Summary 95
5.2 Conclusion 99
5.3 Recommendations 99
Reference 101
Appendix A 109
Appendix B 115

STRATEGY FOR ENSURING FOOD SECURITY IN NIGERIA

ABSTRACT
The study identified strategies for ensuring food security in Taraba State. Specifically, the study was designed to identify the determinants of food security; examine the production patterns of food by farmers, identify the factors responsible for food insecurity: and determine the strategies of ensuring food security. The study was carried out in Taraba State of Nigeria in the year 2011. The population of the study comprises all heads of households in Taraba State. A multi stage sampling technique was used in the selection of respondents. Two agricultural zones were selected using a simple random technique. These were Zing and Bali zones and they were selected using simple random sampling techniques and the process gave rise to the selection of four communities/cells per zone bringing the total number of communities/cells sampled to eight (8). From each sampled cell, a list of farmers was obtained from the farmers’ association and from the list of farmers’ households. Fifteen (15) heads of households were sampled using simple random selection techniques. The total number of respondents for the study summed up to one hundred and twenty (120). A set of interview schedule and questionnaire were used for data collection out of which 117 were found analysable. Frequency, percentage scores, mean scores, and standard deviations were used to analysed the data collected. Results from the study showed that majority (79.5%) of the respondents were males. The age limit of respondents shows that 56% were between the range of 20-29 years and the mean age was 32 years. The educational level of the respondents reveals that the farmers have enjoyed one form of education or the other with about 53.0% having OND/NCE as their highest educational qualification. Further results show that 65.8% of the respondents were single while 31.6% were married. The mean household size of farmers was 7 persons. The mean years of farming experience of the farmers was 8.4 years. The majority (59.0%) of the farmers had 1-5 years of farming experience. Majority (62.4%) of the farmers engage in trading and their main source of information was through extension agents with 47.9%. Majority (84.6%) of the farmers grew maize grains and some crops like rice, yam, guinea corn, and cassava. The monthly income of the respondents revealed that majority (58.8%) have an estimated monthly income of below N20,000. The food security analysis of the farmers revealed that the availability of food items for the respondents were as follows: maize (X = 3.09) cassava flour (X = 3.09), and rice (X = 2.90) depicting availability of the respondents to a large extent while food items from proteins were perceived to be available to a great extent. The means scores show that most of these food items are available Taraba State. On the accessibility of food in Taraba State, majority (76.9%) of the respondents accessed their food items from both farm and market while 18% of the respondents got their food items from farms only. Most (57.3%) of the respondents purchased their food items with money. The prices of the items were moderate (63.2%). The access to food by the respondents as a determinant of food security is not a problem in the entire State. The study also identified some barriers to food access in the state. It revealed that religion (59.8%), culture (64.1%), poor government policies (64.1%), geographical location (60.1%), inadequate market information (61.7%), all have more than half of the respondents agreeing to them as various barriers to their food access. In the utilization of food, carbohydrate food items were not eaten in a higher proportion during the last one day of the interview, while in the case of proteins such as beans, fish, eggs, and milk, they were eaten by the respondents on a 12 – 24 hours basis. The study also showed that the farming pattern which is mostly being practiced among respondents is mixed farming (93.2%) and mixed cropping (82.0%). This could be one of the reasons for high availability of many food items across the various respondents in the state. It is therefore recommended that subsidies should be provided on agricultural inputs by the state government, local government, and other private organizations. Also, opportunities should be provided for farmers to participate in planning and decision making in agricultural programmes and policies in the state.

PARTICIPANT FARMERS’ ACCESSTOCOMPONENTS OF FADAMA III IN ANAMBRA STATE, NIGERIA

ABSTRACT

The study determined the participant farmers’ access to components of FadamaIII in Anambra State, Nigeria. Data was collected using a multistage sampling procedure. Anambra State has 21 LGAs, out of which 20 are participating in Fadama III. One FCA was selected from each participating LGA. Ten (10) FUGs was randomly selected from each of the chosen FCA and one (1) household randomly selected from each FUG giving a total of 200 households interviewed. The Logistic Regressions Analysis was used to ascertain the socio-economic determinants for participation in Fadama III while Fadama III farmers’ involvement in research activities offered by the programme is presented using percentages, disaggregated into participants and non-participants. Results show that majority of the farmers were middle-aged, household heads with a household size of between 5 and 8 people. These farmers had completed their secondary education with a farm size of less than 1 hectare. Only 26% of the respondents have participated in the programme. Respondents’ low level of participation could be due to an inability to pay commitment funds required by user groups. Age, sex, educational level and farm size did not contribute to theselectionof participants into Fadama III activities.Most of the farmers were not involved in the research activities. The few that were involved chose aquaculture technology that was provided by ADP using farmer-managed on-farm as the main research method. They agreed that this research activity was useful. Extension agent visited the farmers at least once in the last two years leading to technology adoption due to the extension service that was provided. The major agricultural input for the respondents was cassava cuttings sourced from the open market from a distance of 1 to 3km. The agricultural inputs were purchased from the farmers’ own funds and were perceived to be available, timely and of high quality. The farmers, therefore, did not have a satisfactory level of access to components of FadamaIII in Anambra State, Nigeria.
 

INTRODUCTION

1.1.       Background information

Poverty is one of the global phenomena that has left the level of food insecurity in developing countries at alarming proportions. Overwhelmingly, the majority of people living on less than $1.25 a day reside in two regions—Southern Asia and sub-Saharan Africa—and they account for about 80 percent of the global total of extremely poor people (United Nations, 2015). Although the decline of poverty has accelerated in the past decade, the region continues to lag behind. Nearly 60 percent of the world’s one billion extremely poor people live in just five countries: India, Nigeria, China, Bangladesh and the Democratic Republic of the Congo (United Nations, 2015).
Although Nigeria, a country in sub-Saharan Africa is blessed with abundant agro-ecological resources and diversity, it is also one of the largest food importers in sub-Saharan Africa (Idachaba, 2009). According to the World Bank (2014), Nigeria has one of the world’s highest economic growth rates, averaging 7.4% but with 2010 poverty estimates still significant at 82.2% using the poverty headcount ratio at $2 a day.
In order to deal with the problems of poverty and food security, the Federal Government of Nigeria has taken several extension initiatives over the years to attain food security. Extensionas a service has been described as the process of enabling change in individuals, communities and industries involved in the primary industry sector and in natural resource management (State Extension Leaders Network (SELN), 2006). Agricultural extension is the entire set of organisations that support and facilitate people engaged in agricultural production to solve problems and to obtain information, skills, and technologies to improve their livelihoods and well-being (Birneret al., 2009). This can include different governmental agencies, non-governmental organisations (NGOs), producer organisations and other farmer organisations, and private sector actors including input suppliers, purchasers of agricultural products, training organisations, and media groups (Neuchâtel Group, 1999).
Extension services are among the most important agricultural services in developing countries (Faye & Deininger, 2005). Investment in extension services is among the largest in the agricultural sector. Returns to agricultural extension in many cases exceed returns to agricultural research. Review of thesocial rate of returns to research and extension from 95 developing countries showed that the returns onagricultural extensionwere 80%, and 50% for research (Alston and Pardey. 2000). Dercon, Gilligan, Hoddinott and Woldehanna in 2008, shows that one agricultural extension visit reduced poverty by 9.8% and increased consumption growth by 7.1% in Ethiopia.
How extension services are delivered (including individual or group-based approaches, conventional extension, or farmer field schools) shows that public extension visits are a key medium for delivering information and knowledge to farmers (World Bank and IFPRI 2010). This does not, however, mean that private-sector NGOs and community-based extension service providers are not playing a role in technology dissemination and extension in many contexts. Extension services are a range of information, advice, training, and knowledge related to agriculture or livestock production, processing, and marketing. This service can be provided by governments or by a private organisation with the intent to increase farmers’ ability to improve their productivity and income. Extension services may be delivered in the form of individual or group visits, organised meetings, use of information and communication technologies (ICTs), or teaching through the use of demonstration plots, model farms, or farmer field schools (FFSs) (Birner et al. 2009).
Extension services in Nigeria have been expressed in a number of agricultural interventions targeted at poverty alleviation and food safety. Some of these interventions include: National Accelerated Food Production Programme (NAFPP-1972), Agricultural Development Projects (ADP-1974), Operation Feed the Nation (OFN-1976), River Basin Development Authorities (RBDAs-1976), Green Revolution (GR-1980), Directorate for Food Roads and Rural Infrastructure (DFRRI-1986), Better Life Programme (BLP-1987), National Agricultural Land Development Authority (NALDA-1992), Family Support Programme (FSP)/ Family Economic Advancement Programme (FSP- 1994/FEAP-1996), National Fadama Development Project (NFDP I-1993), National Economic Empowerment and Development Strategy (NEEDS-1999), National, Special Programme on Food Security (NSPFS-2002), Root and Tuber Expansion Programme (RTEP-2003) (Iwuchukwu and Igbokwe, 2012), National Fadama Development Project (FADAMA II-2005) (Nwalieji and Ajayi, 2008). National Fadama Development Project (FADAMA III-2008) (Dimelu, Emodi, and Okeke, 2014).
The National Fadama Development Project (NFDP) was established to ensure all year round production of crops in all the states of the federation through the exploitation of shallow aquifers and surface water potentials in each state using tube well, wash bore and petrol – driven pumps technology. There are claims that the projectwas successful both nationally and international(Blench and Ingawa, 2004).Bature, Sanni & Adebayo (2013) however questions this success.
According to Baba and Singh (1998), fadama lands have high potentials and agricultural values several times more than the adjacent upland. Fadama development is a typical form of small-scale practice characterised by theflexibility of farming operations, low inputs requirement, high economic values, and minimal social and environmental impact. Hence it conforms to the general criteria for sustainable development (Akinbile, Ashimolowo and Oladoja, 2006). The NFDP (Fadama) is widely being implemented in all the 36 states of the federation and the Federal Capital Territory (FCT), which have been categorised into the core states and the facility states. The core states include Bauchi, Gombe, Jigawa, Kano, Kebbi, Zamfara and Sokoto, while the remaining states and the FCT constitute the facility states (Baba and Singh, 1998). The main objective of the programme was to build on the achievements of the agricultural development projects (ADPs) (Mohan, 2002) and sustainably increase the incomes of fadama users.By increasing their incomes, the project would help reduce rural poverty, increase food security and contribute to the achievement of a key millennium development goal, food security. The programme also hoped to sustain the increase of incomes of fadama resource users by directly delivering resources to the beneficiary rural communities, efficiently and effectively, and empowering them to collectively decide on how resources are allocated and managed for their livelihood activities and to participate in the design and execution of their subprojects. The fadama projects were implemented in three phases. The Fadama I and II have been evaluated and the findings lead to design and implementation of Fadama III.
The Fadama 1 project, which was the first phase of the project focused on supplementary water supply for irrigation and other uses. According to Agbarevo and Okwoche (2014), the objectives of the Fadama1 project include:  construction of about 50,000 shallow tube wells in fadama land for small-scale irrigation; simplifying drilling technology for shallow tube wells; construction of fadama infrastructure such as roads, culverts, storage sheds, etc.; organization of fadama farmers for irrigation management, cost recovery and easy management of credit, marketing products, etc.; carrying out aquifer studies; monitoring and upgrading of irrigation technologies; and completion of environmental assessment of future fadama development activities.
Fadama I focused mainly on production but largely neglected downstream activities such as processing, preservation and conservation and rural infrastructure to ensure the efficient evacuation of farm output to markets (African Development Fund, (ADF) 2003). In addition, the project did not take into consideration other resource uses such as those for livestock and fisheries production. This resulted not only in increased conflicts between the users but also restricted benefits to only those accruing from crop production.
The Fadama II was a follow-up to the successful implementation of the National Fadama Development Project (Fadama I) over 1993-1999, with support from the World Bank. Following the widespread adoption of simple and low-cost improved irrigation technologies, farmers realised income increases from various crops of up to 65% for vegetables, 334% for wheat, and 497% for paddy rice (ADF, 2003). The economic rate of return at completion was 40% compared to an estimated 24% at appraisal (ADF, 2003). Fadama II implemented an innovative local development planning (LDP) tool and built on the success of the community-driven development mechanisms (Bature et al., 2013). The Second National Fadama Development Project was initiated to address some of the factors that militated against the full realisation of the potential benefits of agricultural production activities – some of which were thepoor development of rural infrastructure, storage, processing and marketing facilities. Others were alow investment in irrigation technology, poor organisation of fadama farmers as well as thelack of adequate techniques for greater productivity in particular. The lessons learnt in theimplementation of the First National Fadama Development Project (NFDP) were addressed (Echeme and Nwachukwu, 2010).
The first fadamaproject (Fadama I) focused exclusively on irrigation farming while bothFadama II and Fadama III are more of agricultural diversification programmes, providing financing for thediverse livelihood activities which the beneficiaries themselves identify and design, with appropriatefacilitation support (Federal Ministry of Agriculture and Water Resources, FMAWR, 2009). The Fadama III operation was designed to support the financing and implementation of six main components designed to transfer financial and technical resources to the beneficiaries. The project is a comprehensive five-year action programme developed by the Federal Ministry of Agriculture and Water Resources (FMAWR) in close collaboration with the Federal Ministry of Environment (FME) andother federal and state government ministries, local governments and key stakeholders (donors, privateoperators, NGOs) (FMAWR, 2009). The Project implementation was initially for aperiod of five years, from 2008 to 2013. The Project was anchored on the CDD approach. Community organisations decide on how the resources are to be allocated among the priorities that they themselves identify and they manage the funds. Extensive facilitation, training, and technical assistance were provided through the Project to ensure that poor rural communities, including women and vulnerable groups, especially the physically challenged, participate in the collective decision-making process. The Project helps by giving voice to the communities as well as promotes the principles of transparency and accountability in planning and management of public investments within the LGAs.
The main objective of the Third National Fadama Development Project (FADAMA III) in Nigeria is to develop a sustainable income of rural land and water resources users. It has 6 main components each of which has sub-components. The Project was designed to be coordinated by the National Fadama Coordination Office (NFCO) of the National Food Reserve Agency (NFRA), the implementing agency of the FMAWR, while the day-to-day implementation was mainly to take place at the state level (FMAWR, 2009). The Project aimed to cover an estimated 7,400 fadama community associations in 36 participating states and the FCT. Each new participating state was to implement the project activities in up to 20 Local Government Areas (LGAs) while the oldFadama II states will implement in 10 additional LGAs (FMAWR, 2009). The government was to make all necessary arrangements to ensure timely mobilisation of the counterpart funds needed for project implementation.
Anambra state is a key participant in the Third National Fadama Development Project. The state did not participate inFadama II programme, therefore, the project is being implemented in 20 of the 21 LGAs of the state (.Within the period of six years, the FadamaIII is expected to have achieved its pre-determinedobjectives especially, with respect to advisory services offered by Fadama III to farmers in Anambra State. Of the $39.50 Million Advisory Services and Input SupportFund, Anambra State is one of the few States that successfully implemented the construction/rehabilitation of the Agricultural Equipment Hiring Enterprises (AEHE) centre (World Bank, 2016). The other states are Niger and Kogi states.

1.2.       Statement of the problem

There is growing concern for theprovision of effective and sustainable agricultural extension service to the majority of resource-poor farmers in whose hands the bulk of agricultural production is left.The importance of agricultural extension system, therefore, remains that of a service to enhance the ability of farm families to respond to old problems and meet new opportunities. Anandajayasekeram, Puskur, Workneh and Hoekstra (2008) posits that extension is a component of a system operating with other agro-support systems in the context of agricultural and technology development.
The success or failure of extension delivery is widely based on the level of adoption without considering the effectiveness of extension service delivery. Oguremi and Olatunji (2013) describe extension service delivery as the process by which extension providers bring extension services in form of advice on technology, credits and other farm inputs, on marketing and on all other innovation from the research institutes to the farmer. They stressed that extension providers have the responsibility of providing learning situations, making farmers aware of research findings and persuading them to change their behaviours in favour of the services. The effectiveness of an extension programme is therefore based on the change in thebehaviour of farmers towards adopting extension services.
Madukwe (2006) stresses that the failure of the various extension delivery approaches in developing countries to effectively engineer significant and sustainable productivity and net income growth has become a major concern to all stakeholders, including the donor community. The concerns according to him have been fuelled by the wave of pluralism, market liberalisation and globalisation sweeping across the world and giving rise to initiatives that will enhance efficiency and effectiveness of not only the sub-components of extension delivery but the entire system of technology generation, dissemination and use.
With a rapidly expanding population, environmental degradation, political instability, economic failure and the declining budget, there is, therefore, need to re-assess donor driven extension delivery in particular and its effectiveness and sustainability in the face of an almost non-existent agricultural extension policy. Fadama III, which is donor driven, sought to empower local communities and improve government’s capacity to reach out specifically to the poor and vulnerable groups (Nwachukwu and Ezeh, 2007). However, many studies (Ogbonna and Agwu, 2013; Agwu, Ekwueme and Anyanwu, 2008; Agwu, 2004) have pointed out the low level of extension contacts with rural farmers. This raises concerns as to farmer’s involvement and access to extension services offered by Fadama III. This programme, with its additional financing component, is billed to end in 2017. Has fadamaprogramme achieved its purpose of helping the federal government to boost access to extension services? Or do we need, yet again, another fadama?

1.3.       Purpose of the study

The overall purpose of this study was to assess participant farmers’ access to components of Fadama III in Anambra State, Nigeria. Specifically, the study was designed to:

  1. ascertain the socioeconomic determinants of farmers for benefiting in Fadama III;
  2. assess Fadama III farmers’ participationlevel in research activities offered by the programme;
  • describeFadama III farmers’ access level to extension services;
  1. determine Fadama III farmers’ sources of agricultural inputs; and
  2. determine Fadama III farmers’ perception on theaccessibility of agricultural inputs

1.4.       Significance of the study

The major contribution of the study is its approach to investigating the actual contribution of advisory services component of Fadama III project in the benefiting communities and households. Suggestions will be made to improve the level of agricultural advisory project success and their impact on beneficiaries. The findings will enable researchers to find areas that need to be improved upon and carry out research on such areas in other to strengthen the delivery of extension services in Nigeria.
The findings will also help government, policy makers, private investors and donor agencies to identify and prioritise areas of intervention, investment needs for success and bridge the gaps leading to increased production and marking of agricultural produce.
 

FARMERS’PERCEPTION OF THE GROWTH ENHANCEMENT SUPPORT (GES) SCHEME IN KOGI STATE, NIGERIA

ABSTRACT

The main objective of the study was to determine the farmers’ perception of Growth Enhancement Support (GES) scheme in Kogi State. A total 120 copies of the questionnaires were administered to the schemes’ participants purposively selected from 12 communities of six local government areas of the State. The local government areas are Lokoja, Kogi, Ajaokuta, Adavi, Bassa and Dekina. Data was collected on both demographic and farm characteristics of the respondents. Others areas include respondents’ perceived perception of the GES scheme effectiveness, knowledge level of respondents, level of satisfaction on the scheme activities, the constraints to effective implementation of the scheme and the strategies for effective implementation of the scheme. Data collected was presented using descriptive statistics, mean scores, standard deviation, factor analysis and multiple regression models. The result of the analysis revealed that majority (78.3%) of the respondent were male and married and the farmers mean age was 42.4years. The mean farming household size was 5persons with Christian and Muslim religion being mainly practiced. About 89.2% of the respondents took farming as their major profession with the mean farming experience as 18.6 years. Majority (85.8%) of the respondents belong to social or religion organisations and have access to agriculture-related information. The major crops grown in the area include maize, cassava and rice. The respondents had a very high knowledge of the schemes’ activities and the major source of information on the scheme activities was extension agents. On the farmers’ perception of the GES, a good number of respondents have positive perception on the schemes’ operational process and are equally satisfied with some implementation processes of the scheme. However, the major constraints to effective implementation of the scheme include untimely input provision, inability to pay for the mobile phones. Factor analysis also grouped these constraints into inputs, personnel and poverty-related constraints. The suggested strategies for effective implementation of the scheme include timely input provision and early registration of participants. The hypothesis shows that access to agriculture- related information (t=-2.340:p=0.05) had a significant relationship with rural farmers’ knowledge. It was  recommended that early inputs provisions is to be ensured since farming operations are time bound, the farm inputs are to be further subsidised in such a way that everyone will be able to pay for the subsidized inputs. Other suggestions are the provision of mobile phones, creation of more redemption centres along with construction of feeder roads in order to facilitate the effective operations of the scheme. Lastly, early registration of participants, recruitment of more staff along with women encouragement for participation is to be ensured.

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