Availability And Utilization Of Biology Laboratory Materials In Secondary Schools In Jos South L.G.A, Plateau State
Abstract
This study is on Availability And Utilization Of Biology Laboratory Materials In Secondary Schools In Jos South L.G.A, Plateau Stat, It adopted a descriptive survey research design and was guided by one (1) checklist and two (2) research questions. It sought to find out laboratory resources available for teaching and learning biology in secondary schools in Jos South L.G.A, the extent of adequacy in the provision of laboratory resources in secondary schools and the extent of utilization of the laboratory resources by the biology teachers in teaching and learning biology. Descriptive survey research design was employed for the study, a population of thirty six (36) teachers, due to factors that could not be controlled by the researcher a total of (20) respondents were used for the study, the total number of teachers of secondary schools in Jos South L.G.A is thirty six(36) for this reason, there was no need for sampling . The instrument used for data collection was a researcher developed questionnaire tagged Questionnaire on Availability and Utilization of Laboratory Resources in teaching and learning Biology (QAULR). The questionnaire has sixty (60) items. Descriptive statistics including percentages, mean and standard deviation were used to answer research questions while frequency was used to ascertain the relative position of the items in their order of priority/effect. It was revealed from the study that a total of sixteen out of the twenty listed items were available of in biology laboratories. The study also revealed that laboratory resources are not adequately provided for in secondary schools. Additionally, due to inadequacy in the quantity and quality of laboratory resources provided to secondary schools, students and teachers find it difficult to utilize the laboratory effectively. Different factors ranging from inadequate fund; over enrollment of students into government secondary schools; inadequacy in quantity and quality of human and material resources; lack of storage facilities; lack of supervision; together with ignorance on the proper usage of resources due to lack of training were found to militate against provision, utilization of laboratory resources in secondary schools. Based on the above problems, it was recommended that biology laboratories should be adequately funded; staff, students and laboratory technologists/assistants should be adequately trained on proper improvisation of laboratory; appropriate storage of material resources; provision of accurate records/logistics; replacement/repair of damaged/faulty laboratory materials; appropriate planning, implementation, supervision, monitoring and evaluation of all biology laboratory utilizers among others were suggested as strategies for improving provision and utilization of laboratory materials in secondary schools.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Content Pages
Title Page
Approval Page
Certification
Dedication
Acknowledgment
Table of Contents
List of Tables
Abstract
CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION
Background of the Study
Statement of the Problem
Purpose of the Study
Significance of the Study
Scope of the Study
Research Questions
CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW
Conceptual Framework
Nature of biology
Laboratory Resources
Availability of Laboratory Resources
Maintenance of Resources
Concept of Teaching and Learning
Theoretical Framework
Piaget’s Cognitive Constructivists Learning Theory
. Vygosky’s Social Constructivists Theory
Empirical Studies
Effects of integrating theory practicals on student’s achievement in Biology
Effects of Biological Practical activities on students’ process skills
.Effects of Laboratory approach on academic achievement of biology of students of different levels of scientific literacy
Summary of Literature Review
CHAPTER THREE: RESEARCH METHOD
Design of the Study
Area of the Study
Population of the Study
Sample and Sampling Technique
Instrument for Data Collection
Validation of Instrument
Trial testing of the Instrument
Reliability of the Instrument
Method of Data Collection
Method of Data Analysis
CHAPTER FOUR: PRESENTATION OF RESULT
Research Question One
Research Question Two
Research Question Three
Summary of Findings of the Study
CHAPTER FIVE: DISCUSSION, CONCLUSION AND SUMMARY
Discussion Based on the three Research Questions
Conclusions Reached from the Findings of the Study
Educational Implications of the Findings of the Study
Recommendations
Limitations of the Study
Suggestions for Further Research/Study
Summary of the Study
Availability And Utilization Of Biology Laboratory Materials In Secondary Schools
ASSESSMENT OF DRUG AMONG ABUSE AMONG COLLEGE OF EDUCATION STUDENTS
ASSESSMENT OF DRUG AMONG ABUSE AMONG COLLEGE OF EDUCATION STUDENTS IN AKWANGA NASARAWA STATE
Abstract
The study is on Assessment Of Drug Among Abuse Among College Of Education Students In Akwanga Nasarawa State. Six specific objectives with six corresponding research questions and three null-hypotheses were postulated to guide the study. The descriptive survey research design was adopted for the study. The sample consisted of 674 College of Education Students. Random sampling techniques of balloting without replacement, disproportionate sampling techniques and systematic sampling techniques were used to draw the sample for the study. A two-section researcher’s designed questionnaire which was titled (EDASQ) was the instrument used for data collection. The instrument was validated by five experts. Means were used to answer the research questions while t-Test statistic was used in testing null hypothesis one and Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) statistic was used in test null hypotheses two and three at .05 level of significance and appropriate degree of freedom. The result of the study showed that: The College of Education Students are abusing depressants drugs in a very low extent as their cluster mean is (1.66); the students are abusing stimulants drugs in a very low extent as their cluster mean score is (1.81); Students do not abuse hallucinogen drugs at all as their cluster mean score is (1.27). The independent variables (gender and age) considered, had no significant influence at .05 level of significance, on the extent of drug abuse among College of Education Students while class of study had a significant difference at .05 level of significance on the extent of drug abuse among the students.
Table of Contents
Title Page i
Approval Page ii
Certification iii
Dedication iv
Acknowledgement v
Table of Contents vi
List of Tables ix
List of Figures x
Abstract xi
CHAPTER ONE: Introduction 1
Background to the Study 1
Statement of the Problem 9
Purpose of the Study 11
Research Questions 11
Hypotheses 11
Significance of the Study 12
Scope of the Study 13
CHAPTER TWO: Review of Related Literature 14
1. Conceptual Framework 15
Concepts of drug and drug abuse 15
Types of drug most commonly abused by students 19
Extent of drug abuse among College of Education Students 23
Reasons for students’ use and abuse of drugs 28
Sources of drugs among the students 30
Effects of drug abuse 32
Demographic factors associated with drug abuse 36
2. Theoretical Framework 41
Social Learning Theory 41
Social Influence Theory 43
Social Competence Theory 44
3. Empirical Studies on Drug Abuse and Cigarette Smoking 46
4. Summary of Review of Related Literature 57
CHAPTER THREE: Methods 60
Research Designs 60
Area of the Study 60
Population for the Study 61
Sample and Sampling Techniques 61
Instrument for Data Collection 62
Validity of the Instrument. 62
Reliability of the Instrument. 63
Method of Data Collection 63
Method of Data Analysis 64
CHAPTER FOUR: Results and Discussion 65
Summary of Major Findings 82
Discussions of Findings 84
Extent of drug abuse among College of Education Students 85
Differences in the extent of drug abuse among College of Education Students 90
CHAPTER FIVE: Summary, Conclusions and Recommendations 92
Summary 92
Conclusions 94
Limitation of the Study 95
Recommendations 95
Suggestions for Further Study 96
References 98
AN INVESTIGATION INTO THE PROBLEMS AND PROSPECTS OF TEACHING SENIOR SECONDARY SCHOOL PRACTICAL PHYSICS
AN INVESTIGATION INTO THE PROBLEMS AND PROSPECTS OF TEACHING SENIOR SECONDARY SCHOOL PRACTICAL PHYSICS IN BILLIRI LOCAL GOVERNMENT AREA OF GOMBE STATE
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Title page i
Approval Page ii
Certification Page iii
Dedication iv
Acknowledgement v
Abstract vi
CHAPTER ONE
Background of the study 1
Statement of the problem 7
Significant of the study 8
Scope of the Study 11
Purpose of the study 11
Research questions 12
Research hypothesis 12
CHAPTER TWO
Conceptual framework 13
Theoretical framework 31
Empirical study 36
Summary of literature review 41
CHAPTER THREE
Research design 44
Area of the study 45
Population of the study 45
Sample and sample technique 45
Instrument for data collection 46
Validation of Instruments 47
Reliability of Instrument 47
Control on extraneous variable 47
Method of data collection 48
Method of Data Analysis 49
CHAPTER FOUR
Research question 50
Hypothesis analysis 51
Analysis 52
CHAPTER FIVE
Discussion of result 53
Conclusion 55
Implication of the study 56
Recommendation 56
Educational Implication of the findings 57
Limitations of the Study 56
Suggestion for further research 58
Summary 59
REFRENCE
APPENDIX I
CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY
Materials are classified according to many different criteria inclBilliri L.G.A, Gombe Stateng their physical and chemical characteristics as well as their intended applications whether it is thermal, optical, electrical, magnetic, or combined materials can be anything consisting of pure or impure substance, a singular composite or a complex mix, living or non-living matter, whether natural or man-made, either concrete or abstract ideas. . Ibeneme (2000) defined teaching aids as those materials used for practical and demonstration in the class situation by students and teachers.
Instructional materials are essential and significant tools needed for teaching and learning of school subjects to promote teachers’ efficiency and improve students’ performance. They make learning more interesting, practical, realistic and appealing. They also enable both the teachers and students to participate actively and effectively in lesson sessions. They give room for acquisition of skills and knowledge and development of self- confidence and self- actualization. They are print and non-print items that impact information to students in the educational process. Instructional materials include items such as: kits, textbooks, magazines, newspapers, pictures, recording videos etc. Fadeiye (2005) saw instructional materials as visual and aBilliri L.G.A, Gombe Stateo-visual aids, concrete or non-concrete, used by teachers to improve the quality of teaching and learning activities in Social StBilliri L.G.A, Gombe Statees. Agina-Obu (2005) submitted that instructional materials of all kinds appeal to the sense organs during teaching and learning. Instructional materials play a very important role in the teaching and learning process. It enhances the memory level of the students. At this time that education has spread wide and entirely, oral teaching cannot be the key to successful pedagogy. Therefore the teacher has to use instructional materials to make teaching and learning process interesting (NIC hulls, 2003; Raw 2006) .The Board is also responsible for the content of all instructional materials used in a classroom, whether adopted and purchased from the state-adopted instructional materials list, adopted and purchased through the District instructional materials program or otherwise purchased or made available in the classroom.
Orji (2000) asserts that teaching aid is “the guidance of learning activities” that “a teacher uses to motivate and arouse student’s desire to learn” From the fore-going statement, it can be agreed that for effective learning to take place, a student need to be properly guided by the teacher by way of employing various method and means through which his teaching could be meaningful.
Instructional materials and resources shall be provided in a variety of formats that are appropriate, timely, and essential to the attainment of specified educational objectives and are free of bias, stereotypes, distortions, and prejBilliri L.G.A, Gombe Stateces. These items may be provided in a variety of forms, bound, unbound, kit, or package form and may consist of hard backed or soft backed textbooks, electronic content, consumables, learning laboratories, manipulative, electronic media, and computer courseware or software. Instructional materials, inclBilliri L.G.A, Gombe Stateng textbooks, educational media (library media print, nonpoint, and electronic resources), computer software, digital content, videotapes used by teachers to aid explanations and make learning of subject matter understandable to students during teaching learning process. The Board must either (1) adopt instructional materials selected from the state-approved materials according to the state adoption cycles, (2) adopt instructional materials pursuant to a Board instructional materials review program prescribed by this policy, or (3) a combination of both.
Isola (2010) also described instructional materials as objects or devices that assist the teachers to present their lessons logically and sequentially to the learners. Obanya (2004) asserted that several stBilliri L.G.A, Gombe Statees carried out in some areas in Nigeria indicated that the results of Senior School Certificate Examinations was completely bad in nearly all subjects offered by the students. He stressed further that only about 10% of candidates ‘meaningfully passed’ the examination. Abdu-Raheem (2011) asserted that non availability and inadequacy of instructional materials are major causes of ineffectiveness of the school system and poor performance of students in schools. Ahmed (2003) confirmed that in most secondary schools in Nigeria, teaching and learning take place under a most un-conducive environment without access to essential materials. Eniayewu (2005) posited that it is very important to use instructional aids for instructional delivery to make students acquire more knowledge and to promote academic standard.
The use of instructional materials can enhance the learning achievement. Cronbach (2009) states the important elements of behaviour that provides the base for learning theory situation which consists of all the objects, persons and symbols in the learning environment. Experience in situation prepares a person to respond to similar situation in future. Use of instructional materials can appeal to the individual attention by creating interest goal that will help the learner achieve direct effort. Teacher’s problem of motivation is essentially one of arranging situation with instructional materials in which the learner will see goals he want to attain. Brown etal (2005) summarized the role of teaching aids as follows:
•It promotes meaningful communication and effective learning.
•They ensure better retention, thus making learning more permanent.
•They help to overcome the limited classroom by making the inaccessible accessible.
•They provide a common experience upon which late learning can be developed. •They stimulate and motivate students to learn.
International Letters of Social and Humanistic Sciences
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•They encourage participation especially if students are allowed to manipulate materials used. Osuala (2010) in his own contribution said it does not only help to motivate and develop interest on the part of the student, but also help to bring about an enhance respect for teachers knowledge of the subject. Instructional materials are also described as concrete or both to the sense organs during teaching (Aginna-Obu 2000).The nature of the learning and the wide range of student’s abilities in the average classroom necessitate a high degree of teachers and experience in the method of presenting the subject matter. This has been truncated with the unavailability of instructional materials in schools. However, a common goal a teacher carries wherever he is, to make lesson presentation vitally fresh, stimulating and testing for their students. This will help the teacher to individualize the learning method as well as the content and also working according to the student’s need. This goal can be reached most effectively through the use of instructional materials. The need to emphasis on the use and importance
of instructional materials in any learning and teaching environment cannot be underestimated. For any learning to take place, the teacher has to make use of these materials that would enable him to teach effectively.
Equipment and other instructional materials to the some extent determine the method the teacher uses in teaching physics. The method adopted could be demonstration, experimental, discussion, inquiry-based method, explanation etc. It is generally agreed by both teachers and school administrators that apart from the most boards and textbooks which are often available for the teacher to use, there are other materials that aid or are capable of complementing the teacher’s effort in teaching/learning process. Those materials are commonly called “instructional materials. One of the reasons why students in our secondary schools sometime find it difficult to comprehend immediately what is being taught by the teacher is the non availability of instructional materials that can easily convey the message of the lesson to the learners. In addition, Ajayi and Ayodele (2001) stressed the importance of availability of instructional materials to achieving effectiveness in educational delivery and supervision in the school system. Ogbondah (2008) alerted on the gross inadequacy and under utilization of instructional materials necessary to compensate for the inadequacies of sense organs and to reinforce the capacity of dominant organs. He noted that school teachers should try their possible best in the provision of locally made materials in substitution for the standard ones to promote their lessons.
Abdu-Raheem (2014) encouraged teachers to improvise teaching aids because they are in great measure enhance learners’ full participation in the lesson, gives room for inquiry, problem-solving, discussion and clarification of issues and ideas among students and the teacher.
He suggested the needs for teachers to find necessary materials for instruction to supplement what textbooks provide in order to broaden concepts and arouse students ‘interests in the subject, attested that effective teaching and learning requires a teacher to teach the students with instructional materials and use practical activities to make learning more vivid, logical, realistic and pragmatic. Esu, Enukoha and Umoren (2004) agreed that instructional materials are indispensable to the effective teaching and learning activities.
Enaigbe (2009) noted that basic materials such as textbooks, most board and essential equipment like computer, projector, television and video are not readily available in many schools. In a town study, Olumorin, Yusuf, Ajidagba and Jekayinfa (2010) observed that instructional materials help teachers to teach conveniently and the learners to learn easily without any problem
The Impact Of Poverty On Economic Growth In Nigeria
The Impact Of Poverty On Economic Growth In Nigeria 1970-2017
CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background of the study
Poverty is a global threat, plaguing both developed and developing nations. It has a devastating effect on developing nations generally but sub-Saharan Africa in particular (Addae-Korankye 2014). Poverty has become pervasive in Nigeria in the last four decades despite the economic boom of the 1970s (Anyanwu 1997; Mohammed-Hashim 2008; Obi 2007). Similarly, it was discovered that about 60% of Nigerians live in poverty despite the country’s enormous oil wealth (Sadiq 2007). It can be argued that poverty varies from one subgroup to another such that poverty is seen in all its manifestations and its magnifications as antithetic to economic growth (Rodrigues 2009).
Globally, poverty has been recognised as a major blemish in developing economies ever since economists began to take interest in the third world (Killick 1981). On the whole, the Nigerian economy depends so much on the exportation of oil that nearly all its budgetary revenues come from oil earnings sold in the international market. In 1973, most economic indicators such as real per capita income, real wages and private consumption were positively impacted by the first oil shock, which caused a dramatic increase and sharp rise in them. Similarly, income inequalities between urban and rural areas increased sharply, primarily because of the oil boom and its spin-offs (Anusionwu & Diejomoah 1981). However, the international price of oil decreased or fell constantly between 1980 and 1985 and brought about worsening economic conditions; there was a sharp fall in the standard of living and the biting hand of poverty was ushered in as a leading problem in Nigeria (Okunmadewa 1996). To this end, the oil boom was recognised to have contributed immensely to the large appreciation of the Nigerian naira, which subsequently caused adverse effects to agriculture as a non-oil tradable that had been the mainstay of the Nigerian economy.
In Nigeria, the nature of the determinants of poverty can be traced to low or declining level of economic growth, income inequalities, unemployment, corruption, bad governance, diversion of funds into non-developmental projects, fund embezzlement, inappropriate macroeconomic policies, inadequate endowment of human capital, debt or borrowing, labour market deficiencies that were caused by limited growth in job creation, low productivity, low wages in the informal sector and poor development of human resources. Poverty can also arise through structural deficiencies such as environmental degradation, worker retrenchment, frequent and increasing crime rates and violence, decrease in the real value of safety nets, structural changes in the family as well as the neglect of the agricultural sector, non-development of infrastructural facilities, lack of enabling environment for infant industries, epileptic power supply, depreciation of the Nigerian currency (naira) and the military government’s inability to properly manage the Nigerian economy (Ajakaiye & Adeyeye 2001; NPC 2004; Ogwumike 2001).
Poverty became prevalent in Nigeria beginning in 1985 and was seen as an obstacle or limitation to economic growth because poverty was measured based on the world standard of $1 per day and $2 per day. International prices were adjusted for local currency such that purchasing power parity conversion factors were employed to compute the depth of poverty as well as its prevalence in Nigeria (Obadan & Odusola 2001). The poverty gap calculated on the basis of $1 and $2 per day as the mean shortfall below the poverty line indicated that 70.2% and 90.8% of Nigerians, respectively, earned income that put them below the poverty line in a survey conducted in 1992–1993. During the same period, the poverty gap computed at $1 and $2 per day was 34.9% and 59.0%, respectively (Mohammed-Hashim 2008; World Bank 2001). In 2010, the World Bank defined or readjusted the international poverty line of $1 equivalent in 2001 to a new international poverty line of $1.25 per day in US prices (World Bank 2011). Generally, poverty brings about impaired access to resources, reducing the capability of individuals to enjoy an improved quality of life, which might have been converted from available productive resources (Adeyeye 1999; Ogwumike 2001; Sen 1997). On the other hand, poverty persists as a result of inefficient employment of common resources, occurring because of a weak policy environment and inadequate infrastructure, as well as a lack of access to improved technology. Other causes include the non-availability of credit instruments and exclusion of ‘problem groups’ from participating in the democratic process. Thus, widespread poverty and an over-reliance on earnings from oil might have hindered economic growth in Nigeria.
In spite of the strong growth rate in Africa’s second largest economy, poverty has kept rising in Nigeria to the extent that about 100 million of her citizens live below the poverty line of $1 per day (Daniel 2011). The proportion of Nigerians who were absolutely poor rose from 54.7% in 2004 to 69.9% in 2010 (National Bureau of Statistics [NBS] 2011; Omoniyi 2016). Nigeria’s economy is projected to continue to grow, but poverty is likely to get worse as the gap between the rich and poor continues to widen on a daily basis. This is why Kale (2012) considers poverty to be a paradox in which a higher proportion of Nigerians continue to live in poverty in spite of the continued enormous growth in the Nigerian economy year by year. To this end, the NBS (2010) reported that 112 518 507 million lived in relative poverty while it put Nigeria’s population at 163 million. It went further to compare this figure with Uganda, where only 28 million were poor; this is an indication that there are about four times as many people living in poverty in Nigeria as in Uganda. This shows that Nigeria has failed using all standards of poverty measurement including the relative poverty index. The various poverty measures in Nigeria pose different profiles; for instance absolute poverty puts it at 60.9%, 61.2% for $1 per day, 93.9% for the subjective measure while a recent survey conducted by Harmonized National Living Standard put the poverty profile at 69.0%. The much-celebrated gross domestic product (GDP) growth rate that averaged 7.4% in the last 10 years becomes questionable. Additionally, Nigeria’s Gini coefficient was 0.268 in 1980, 0.295 in 1990, 0.430 in 2004, 0.490 in 2009 and 0.834 in 2012 (Nwagwu 2014; UNDP 2009; World Bank 2014a). Similarly, the Human Development Index for Nigeria during the same period was 0.46 in 2004; it increased to 0.49 in 2009 and further increased to 0.51 in 2012 (UNDP 2011; 2013; World Bank 2014b; World Data Atlas 2015). These figures show that income inequality and human capital development increased in Nigeria during the period covered by this article.
This succinctly shows that there is a sharp disconnect between poverty and growth because the majority became poorer through exclusion. It is therefore necessary to mention that what is needed to fight the biting hand of poverty and ensure that poverty is banished, is a holistic attempt. This can only come through the adoption of macroeconomic policies of all-inclusive growth nationwide, to which it seem no adequate attention has been given by previous studies. The objectives of this article are to examine the relationship between poverty and economic growth, to analyse the determinants of economic growth and to establish the causes or determinants of poverty in Nigeria. The rest of this article is divided into four sections: a section dealing with a review of the literature, one to present the methodology of the study, one to discuss the results and finally the conclusion and recommendations.
Statement of the Problem
Many Economists would argue that igniting economic growth and sustaining it is the surest and most sustainable way to fight poverty. Cross-country studies on economic growth and poverty reduction indicate that a 1% increase in growth has been associated on average with a 1.5% reduction in poverty (Hasan, Mitra and Ulubasoglu, 2007). The Asian Development Bank (ADB) (2004) report stated that there is a great deal of variation in how much economic growth has reduced poverty across countries and even within countries over different periods of time. In statistical terms, the report noted that variation in economic growth can explain only around 45% of the variation in poverty
reduction. These two ―stylized facts‖ about growth and poverty linkages – that poverty reduction is closely associated with economic growth but that this association is by no means perfect suggests two challenges for policymaker (Hasan et. al., 2007). According to author, first what are the policies that can ignite and thereafter sustain growth? Second, how does one ensure that growth generates significant opportunities for the poor?
To date, poverty situation in Nigeria remains a paradox, at least from two perspectives. Firstly, poverty in Nigeria is a paradox because the poverty level appears as a contradiction considering the country‘s immense wealth. Secondly, poverty situation has worsened despite the huge human and material resources that have been devoted to poverty reduction by successive governments in Nigeria with no substantial success achieved from such efforts (Oyeranti and Olayiwola, 2005). According to the authors, since poverty remains a development issue, it has continued to capture the attention of both national governments and international development agencies for several decades. Since the mid 1980s, reducing poverty has become a major policy concern for governments and donor agencies in all poverty stricken countries, Nigeria inclusive. Thus, to attain the objective of reducing poverty in Nigeria, the preoccupation of the government has been the growth of the economy as a pre-requisite for improved welfare. To this effect the government therefore initiated several economic reform measures which include Economic Stabilization measures of 1982, Economic Emergency Measures in 1985 and Structural Adjustment Programme (SAP) in 1986. Components of SAP include market- determined exchange and interest rates, liberalized financial sector, trade liberalization, commercialization and privatization of a number of enterprises (Aigbokhan, 2008).
Specialized agencies were also established to promote the objective of poverty reduction. These include Agricultural Development Programmes, Nigeria Agricultural, Cooperative and Rural Development Bank, National Agricultural Insurance Scheme, National Directorate of Employment, National Primary Health Care Agency, Peoples Bank, Urban Mass Transit, mass education through Universal Basic, Education (UBE), Rural Electrification Schemes (RES) among others (Adigun, Awoyemi and Omonona, 2011). The recent effort is based on the seven point agenda. Like earlier reform packages, the strategy considers economic growth as crucial to poverty reduction. The major issues of the seven point agenda include: power and energy, food security, wealth creation and transportation. Others are land reforms, security and mass education.
There may have been increased polarization in income distribution, resulting in a wider gulf between the poor and the rich, manifested in a disappearing middle class in the Nigerian economy. Despite policy interventions in the past to correct this abnormality, income inequality has increased the dimension of poverty (Oyekale, 2007). Additionally, attention to the importance of income distribution in poverty reduction seems to be growing. Whether growth reduces poverty, and whether in particular, growth can be deemed to be ―pro-poor‖, depends, however, on the impact of growth on inequality and on how much this impact on inequality feeds into poverty (Araar and Duclos, 2007).
The rate of rising poverty in Nigeria has led to a number of empirical researches to understand the link between economic growth and poverty reduction. These research works (for example Adigun ,et al.2011, Akanbi and Du Toit, 2009; Orebiyi, 2008 and Osunubi, 2006) however, are one sided in the sense that they particularly focused on how various government policies affect poverty reduction and not if the growth performance are pro-poor. The argument in the theoretical literature on whether a country should focus on achieving growth and thereafter ensure that the pattern of its growth is pro-poor or focus on reducing poverty by ensuring that this will lead to growth is still unclear and therefore requires further empirical works especially for the case of Nigeria. This study is therefore designed to fill these gaps by attempting to address the following research questions: why has the rate of poverty been so high in Nigeria despite record increase in economic growth? What is the nature of relationship between poverty and Economic growth in Nigeria? If recorded economic growth cannot be translated into improved living condition of the poor, what other measures of policy can be explored to reduce poverty and how?
Objectives of the Study
The main objective of this study is to explore the linkages between poverty and economic growth in Nigeria. The specific objectives are:
i To ascertain if recorded economic growth in Nigeria translated into poverty reduction ii To assess if growth is pro-poor in Nigeria.
Research hypotheses
Based on the objectives outlined above, the following hypotheses therefore were formulated for this study:
Ho1 Recorded economic growth does not translate into poverty reduction in Nigeria Ho2 Growth in Nigeria is not pro-poor
Scope of the study
This study is limited to the Nigeria economy for the period 2004-2008, it uses Nigerian households‘ survey for two periods 2003/2004 and 2008 to make an ex-post analysis of changes in poverty.
Significance of the study
This research would contribute to the ongoing policy debate by identifying growth patterns of the Nigerian economy and to what extent the poor benefit from economic growth. In order to achieve this, it uses Nigerian households‘ survey for two periods 2003/2004 and 2008 to make an ex-post analysis of changes in poverty. It therefore employs Kakwani, Khandker and Son (2004) framework called Poverty Equivalent Growth Rate (PEGR) measure which utilizes unit record data available for two periods. This measure of pro-poor growth according to the authors, captures a direct linkage (or monotonic relation) with poverty reduction, indicating that poverty reduction takes into accounts not only growth but also how benefits of growth are shared by individuals in society. Therefore, a pro-poor growth measure that satisfies the monotonicity axiom implies that the magnitude of poverty reduction should be a monotonically increasing function of the pro-poor growth rate.
Limitations of the Study
Although the research has reached its aim, there were some unavoidable limitations. First because of time limit, this research was conducted using 1996-2004 Nigerian Living Standard Household Survey (NLSS) data. The study should have included 2008 NLSS but the data released then by the Federal Bureau of Statistics required some statistical amendments to be used for empirical study. The use of Poverty Equivalent Growth Rate (PEGR), instead of the usually Additively Decomposable Growth Rate measures resulted in the delay of the project completion in order to get acquainted with the software application.
Organizations of the Study
The paper is organized as follows: Following the introduction in chapter one is the literature reviews in chapter two, which include theoretical and empirical literatures. Chapter three is for methodology, the model of Pro-Poor growth, applying of additively decomposable poverty measures and Poverty Equivalent Growth Rate (PEGR) measures, calculating of PEGR and data sources, while chapter four consists of data analysis and presentations of the results. Chapter five contains summary, conclusion and recommendations.
THE IMPACT OF GLOBAL FINANCIAL CRISIS ON THE NIGERIAN CAPITAL MARKET
GLOBAL FINANCIAL CRISIS, NIGERIAN CAPITAL MARKET
ABSTRACT
The objective of this study is to examine the impact of global financial crisis on the Nigerian Capital Market. The data for the study were collected through primary and secondary sources of data namely: Textbooks, Journals, Internet, past works relating to the study and questionnaire. The data were analyzed and presented using tables; simple percentage and the hypothesis were tested using Chi-Square method of data analysis. The findings shows that: Manipulation of share prices has significant effect on the Nigerian Capital Market crash; insider trading /dealing is a significant factor in destroying investors’ confidence in the Nigerian Capital Market; there is a significant relationship between the global economic meltdown and the crisis in the Nigerian Stock Exchange during the study period.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
PAGE
Title i
Title page ii
Certification iii
Approval iv
Dedication v
Acknowledgments vi
Abstract vii
Table of Content viii
CHAPTER ONE – INTRODUCTION
Background of Study 1
Statement of the Problem 5
Objective of the Study 5
Research of Questions 6
Statement of Hypothesis 6
Scope of the Study 7
Significance of the Study 7
Limitations of Study 7
Definition of terms 8
CHAPTER TWO – LITERATURE REVIEW
Introduction 9
The Nigerian Capital Market 10
Regulation of the Capital Market 11
The concept of financial crisis 12
Causes of the Global Financial Crisis 13
The Impact of the Global Financial Crisis on the Nigerian Economy 15
The Meltdown of the Nigerian Capital Market 17
Capital Market Reforms 25
CHAPTER THREE – RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
Introduction 28
Research Design 28
Source of Data 29
Primary Source 29
Secondary Source 29
Population of the Study 29
Design & Administration of Questionaire 29
Sample Size Determination 30
Sampling Technique 31
Restatement of Hypothesis 31
Method of Data Analysis 31
Statistical Procedure 32
Validity and Reliability of Instruments 33
CHAPTER FOUR – DATA PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS
Introduction 34
Presentation of Data & Analysis of Data 34
Test of Hypothesis 41
Test of Hypothesis 1 42
Test of Hypothesis 2 43
Test of Hypothesis 3 44
CHAPTER FIVE–SUMMARY OF FINDINGS, CONCLUSION &RECOMMENDATIONS
Summary of findings 50
Conclusions 51
Recommendations 52
BIBLIOGRAPHY 54
CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION
BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY
The current global economic meltdown which started in late 2007 was as a result of a liquidity shortfall in the United States banking system. The immediate cause or trigger of the current crisis was the bursting of the United States housing bubble which peaked in approximately 2005–2006. Already-rising default rates on “subprime” and adjustable rate mortgages (ARM) began to increase quickly thereafter. An increase in loan packaging, marketing and incentives such as easy initial terms, and a long-term trend of rising housing prices had encouraged borrowers to take on difficult mortgages in the belief they would be able to quickly refinance at more favorable terms. However, once interest rates began to rise and housing prices started to drop moderately in 2006–2007 in many parts of the U.S., refinancing became more difficult. Defaults and foreclosure activity increased dramatically as easy initial terms expired, home prices failed to go up as anticipated, and ARM interest rates reset higher.
Low interest rates and large inflows of foreign funds created easy credit conditions for a number of years prior to the crisis, fueling a housing construction boom and encouraging debt-financed consumption. The combination of easy credit and money inflow contributed to the United States housing bubble. Loans of various types (e.g., mortgage, credit card, and auto) were easy to obtain and consumers assumed an unprecedented debt load. As part of the housing and credit booms, the number of financial agreements called mortgage-backed securities (MBS) and collateralized debt obligations (CDO), which derived their value from mortgage payments and housing prices, greatly increased. Such financial innovation enabled institutions and investors around the world to invest in the U.S. housing market.
As housing prices declined, major global financial institutions that had borrowed and invested heavily in subprime MBS reported significant losses. Falling prices also resulted in homes worth less than the mortgage loan, providing a financial incentive to enter foreclosure. The ongoing foreclosure epidemic that began in late 2006 in the U.S. continues to drain wealth from consumers and erodes the financial strength of banking institutions. Defaults and losses on other loan types also increased significantly as the crisis expanded from the housing market to other parts of the economy. Total losses are estimated in the trillions of U.S. dollars globally.
While the housing and credit bubbles built, a series of factors caused the financial system to both expand and become increasingly fragile, a process called financialisation. Policymakers did not recognize the increasingly important role played by financial institutions such as investment banks and hedge funds, also known as the shadow banking system. Some experts believe these institutions had become as important as commercial (depository) banks in providing credit to the U.S. economy, but they were not subject to the same regulations. These institutions as well as certain regulated banks had also assumed significant debt burdens while providing the loans described above and did not have a financial cushion sufficient to absorb large loan defaults or MBS losses. These losses impacted the ability of financial institutions to lend, slowing economic activity. Concerns regarding the stability of key financial institutions drove central banks to provide funds to encourage lending and restore faith in the commercial paper markets, which are integral to funding business operations. Governments also bailed out key financial institutions and implemented economic stimulus programs, assuming significant additional financial commitments.
Financial booms and busts are not a new phenomenon. What is disquieting about the current meltdown is that it is in the nature of a seismic tremor of earth-shaking proportions.
Within a few months, some of the biggest financial giants have gone belly-up, while several more were in serious trouble. How indeed are the mighty fallen! Bear Stearns, AIG, Fannie Mae and Freddie Mac, Lehman Brothers and Merill Lynch.
The automobile giants are virtually on their deathbeds while a good number of industrials are surviving only by the skin of their teeth. A rather prosperous central European nation, Iceland, has virtually sued for bankruptcy, resorting to an IMF standby arrangement – the first since the British ‘humiliation’ of 1967.
The contagion has spread to Europe, Japan, Asia, Africa and Latin America. An estimated US$1.7 trillion in bailout funds has already been committed by OECD countries, but we are yet to see the end of the tunnel, not to talk of any light in it. According to a recent report, the world stands in need of a staggering US$4 trillion to fully resolve this crisis.
In Nigeria, the former CBN Governor Professor Chukwuma Soludo was credited as saying that Nigeria was not going to be affected by the Global economic recession. After much dithering, the Federal Government decided to take some steps towards insulating the nation’s economy against the effects of the global economic recession. President Umaru Yar’Adua, acknowledged that the impact of the crisis was already taking its toll on the economy and set up a new economic team to monitor the crisis and advise the government accordingly. The team, with the President himself as chairman, will assess the impact of the global economic crisis on the country, recommend appropriate macro-economic policy responses and identify other practical measures aimed at shoring up investors’ confidence. The Committee’s other responsibilities are to examine other related issues such as unemployment and make recommendations on any other matters or actions required to forestall adverse consequences of the global economic meltdown on the nation.
Many Nigerian households invested in the Global Depository receipts (GDRs) operated by some Nigerian banks. Indeed the value of these GDRs has fallen to an abysmally unacceptable level since the first quarter of 2008 when the global Stock Market was hit by tumbling prices and dwindling investor confidence.
The situation is so bad that some of the GDRs purchased at $11.20 have fallen to an all-time low of $3.50. Back home, in Nigeria, the stock market is in shambles, with all efforts put forward by the Nigerian Stock Exchange (NSE) producing no substantial results.
The global financial crisis has resulted in foreign portfolio investment withdrawals from the Nigerian Capital Market in order to service financial obligations. A total financial inflow to Nigeria between 2007 and 2008 increased by 21%, but is estimated to have reduced by 38.6% between 2008 and 2009.
Nigeria’s own stock market index is the Nigerian Stock Exchange’s All-Share Index (NSE- ASI, or simply ASI), and currently provides a composite picture of the financial health of 233 listed equities. Starting with an index value of 100 in 1984, with increased listings and financial activity, it attained a value of 57,990 at the end of year 2007. It started the year 2008 at 58,580 (with a market capitalization of N10.284 trillion), and went on to achieve its highest value ever of 66,371 on March 5, 2008,with a market capitalization of about N12.640 trillion.
However, ever since that high, the ASI has inexorably declined, exhibiting a secular bear posture since July 17, 2008 when, at ASI=52,910, the index fell below 20% of its all-time high, and has continued to fall, closing on October 22, 2008 at 42,207 (a 36.4% loss from the high within just seven months, and a year-to-date decline of 27.9%), The decline continued into 2009 and was 25,065 as at October 26, 2010, with a market capitalization of N6.141 trillion. In terms of capital decline, the Nigerian capital market has since the March 5, 2008 lost to date about N6.5 trillion, or about 52%.
I doubt if there is any reasonable Nigerian who did not jump on the bandwagon in the crazy days of share boom. Even petty traders and other low-income earners saw stocks as the new way to financial freedom. Some invested all their life savings and end of service benefits.
How wrong they were; because less than one year after the bonanza started prices crashed throwing them into the cesspit of hopelessness and indebtedness.
STATEMENT OF PROBLEMS
The Nigerian stock market is in shambles. It earned the unenviable accolade as one of “the world’s worst performing stock market in 2008, after losing N5.4trn in market capitalization and 54 percent in the All share index” just a year after it had emerged as the world’s best performing stock market in 2007 with a return of 74.9 percent.
Investors have lost confidence in the Nigerian capital market. There are some individuals and institutions that are worried and wary of losing even more than they have already lost. Many individuals are swearing to never have anything to do with the stock market again once they are able to “comfortably” bail out. It has become difficult for companies to raise fresh fund through the capital market. It is believed that the supervisory body (SEC) is not performing its oversight function effectively.
However, there have been reports that some of the causes of the collapse of the capital market were as a result of the nefarious act perpetrated by the market regulatory body as well as the market players. Some of these unprofessional conducts of these market actors ranges from price-fixing and overvaluation of shares to manipulation of initial public offers. These corrupt practices of the market actors and the eventual global economic meltdown bounced heavily on the capital market and impacted negatively on the market and the economy in general.
This study therefore seeks to find the impact of the global financial crisis on the Nigerian capital market as well as on the economy.
OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY
The main objective of this study is to examine the impact of the global financial crisis on the Nigerian capital market. Other specific objectives include:
i) To determine the impact of share prices manipulation on the Nigerian capital market
ii) To examine the effects of insider trading on investor’s confidence in the Nigerian capital market.
iii) To determine if there is a significant relationship between the global economic meltdown and the crises in the Nigeria Stock Exchange.
RESEARCH QUESTIONS
To achieve the foregoing objectives, the following research questions are posed:
i) Is there any relationship between share prices manipulation and the Nigerian capital market crash?
ii) To what extent does insider trading affects investor’s confidence in the Nigerian capital market?
iii) Is there any significant relationship between the global economic meltdown and the crises in the Nigeria Stock Exchange?
STATEMENT OF HYPOTHESES
A review of literature shows that there are other explanations for the crash in the Nigeria stock market beyond the global financial meltdown. Also, studies have shown that the supervising body is not performing its oversight functions effectively. In addition, Nigeria is gradually being integrated into the global economy and hence not insulated from happenings in the global economy.
Therefore, the following hypotheses formulated to guide this study .
Ho1: Manipulation of share prices does not significantly affect the Nigerian capital market crash
Ho2: Insider trading is not a significant factor in destroying investor’s confidence in the Nigerian capital market.
Ho3: There is no significant relationship between the global economic meltdown and the crises in the Nigeria Stock Exchange.
SCOPE OF THE STUDY
The global financial meltdown is believed to have impacted various sectors of the Nigerian economy ranging from the Government, Banking, Insurance, Shipping, and Manufacturing industries etc. It is a very vast topic. For a proper research to be conducted and to be effective, this project will limit it findings and investigations on the impact of the global financial meltdown on the Nigeria’s capital market.
SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY
The importance of the capital market to any economy (developed or emerging) cannot be overemphasized. It has been discovered that there is a direct linkage between the capital market of a nation and its economic growth (Olowookere and Osunubi, 2007; Kalu, 2009; Nwachukwu, 2009).
It is a noted fact that for any meaningful economic transformation of a country to take place, her capital market must be effectively active. It has also been an identified fact that economic strength of any nation is measured according to how active her capital market is/ or performing its supposed functions.
LIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY
This research work was carried out alongside with other academic work in the school. This study encountered some constraints as there were initial difficulties in gathering some relevant materials and information.
Time equally took its toll as there was a time for the completion of the study. Notwithstanding all these constraints, the research was successfully carried out and met the entire requiring standard.
This study will therefore be useful in the following areas.
i) This study will be of a significant interest to government and the Securities and Exchange Commission as they are aware of the problem confronting the Central Bank Nigeria and remedies to grappling these problems.
ii) The study will also be significant to institutional operators of the market especially the Nigeria Stock Exchange (SEC) as the study provides detail causes of the problem and ways to correct the existing abnormalities.
iii) The study will also be beneficial to researchers who want to go into further research in this area as it will serve as a good reference material
iv) This study will be of interest to investors who have been at the receiving end of the financial economic crises as this study will enlighten them on the causes of the problem and the efforts of SEC in protecting their investments.
DEFINITIONS OF KEY CONCEPTS
CAPITAL MARKET: is a market for securities (debt or equity), where business enterprises (companies) and governments can raise long-term funds
STOCK MARKET OR EQUITY MARKET: is a public (a loose network of economic transactions, not a physical facility or discrete) entity for the trading of company stock (shares) and derivatives at an agreed price; these are securities listed on a stock exchange as well as those only traded privately.
FINANCIAL MELTDOWN: A situation in which the supply of money is outpaced by the demand for money. This means that liquidity is quickly evaporated because available money is withdrawn from banks (called a run), forcing banks either to sell other investments to make up for the shortfall or to collapse.
Contents
Impact Of E-Commerce On The Nigerian Economy
ABSTRACT
Globalization is a process of creating a global market place in which increasingly all nations are forced to participate . Key elements of this process are interconnection of sovereign nations through trade and capital flow, harmonization of the economic rules that govern relationship between these sovereign nations, creating instructions to support and facilitate dependence and interconnection and creation of a global market place.
The world as we know it is shrinking, thanks to advancing technology and people around the globe are more connected to one another than ever before. As a result, corporate bodies and individuals the world over are finding themselves in a situation where they have to restructure and reposition themselves in order to efficiently utilize global resources and maximize the gains accruable from the delivery of specialized products and professional services via the global market place,the internet.
This method of doing business is termed e-commerce. E-commerce, literally meaning Electronic commerce, has evolved rapidly over the last two decades. It consist primarily of distribution, marketing, buying and selling of products or services and transfer of funds over electronic system such as the internet. It also covers a wide range of business from consumer-based retail sites, through auction and music sites, and corporate sites for business exchanges.
CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
Background to the study
E-commerce refers to the use of communications technology particularly the Internet to buy, sell and market goods and services to customers. The Internet has brought about a fundamental shift in national economies that are isolated from each other by barriers to cross-border trade and investment; isolated by distance, time zones and language; and isolated by national difference in government regulations, culture and business systems (Mohammad, 2004). E-commerce offers a level playing ground for large businesses, as well as small and medium-scale enterprises (SMEs) to operate in the global market-place; and for regional businesses and communities to participate in social, economic and cultural networks seamlessly across international boundaries (Mary-Anne, 1998). It equally fosters direct access to distant markets and promotes globalization of commercial activities; and blurs many of the current distinctions between domestic and foreign companies to an extent that it becomes practically impossible to determine the origin of products (Georges, 1997). Hitherto, multinationals that operated in a number of countries had to adjust their products and services to accommodate the diverse operating environments at a relatively high cost, which the virtual marketplace has reduced.
Statement of research problem
The electronic payment system is a major pre-requisite for e-commerce implementation, but the Nigerian economy is largely cash-based with over 90% of funds in circulation. Thus payment for goods and services is mostly by cash due to reasons largely attributed to ignorance, illiteracy and lack of adequate infrastructure to guarantee availability and security of transactions (Ojo 2004, Ovia 2002, and Bickersteth 2005). Other factors that are responsible for the low level of e-commerce participation is the image problem (Olesin 2006, and Ezeoha 2006a). Payment cards with origin from Nigeria are rejected outside because of the level of Internet fraud and Advance Fee Fraud known as 419.
Research questions
For the purpose of this project, the following research questions are posed:
(i) What type of relationship exist between globalization and e-commerce?
(ii) What impact has globalization had on the Nigerian economy?
(iii) Has globalization actually improved the trade relationship between Nigeria and other countries?
(iv) How can development be ushered in (economic development) using e- commerce?
(v) What are the factors combating against e-commerce in Nigeria?
Objectives of study
The main Objective of this study is to investigate the impact of E-commerce on the Nigerian economy
The specific purpose is thus:
• To examine profound implications of globalization for Nigerian economy.
• To examine the impact of international integration of market for goods, services and capital.
• To analyse how development can be ushered in that is economic development through the use of e-commerce.
RESEARCH QUESTIONS
For the purpose of this project, the following research questions are posed:
(vi) What type of relationship exist between globalization and e-commerce?
(vii) What impact has globalization had on the Nigerian economy?
(viii) Has globalization actually improved the trade relationship between Nigeria and other countries?
(ix) How can development be ushered in (economic development) using e- commerce?
(x) What are the factors combating against e-commerce in Nigeria?
Significance of study
The researcher firmly believes that the result of this research work will enable Nigerian policy makers, to know that globalization is inescapable, and why we must have a proper vision of its consequence and understand how we would take advantages of its opportunities.
The study will help to show the gains that a country can achieve by engaging in e- commerce.
This study will critically distinguish the present term of globalization from the earlier globalization process.
The research study will show the process through which development can be ushered in with the use of e-commerce. The study will serve as a reference material for future and further researchers in this field of study and tends to expand the horizon of existing knowledge to a frontier.
1.5 METHODOLOGY
Sources and method of data collection
In this research work, qualitative method of inquiry was adapted,which relies on the use of secondary data. The information that served the basis of my analysis was sourced from books, periodicals, journals, internet daily’s and other relevant official records and documents from business organizations (industries and companies). The research reviewed scholarly literature on the topic of study
Socio-Economic Effects Of Kidnapping In Nigeria
Socio-Economic Effects Of Kidnapping In Nigeria, A study of Ekiti State
CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION
- Background of the Study:
Kidnapping, abduction, hostage-taking, or by whatever name it goes, has had a long history dating back to time immemorial. This dysfunctional act has featured so conspicuously in recent times in Nigeria, as one of the social vices— perhaps it could only be second to drug trafficking in global catalogue of crimes (http://www.ambrosiatreatmenter.com/drug-report.php). Ekiti State seems to have experienced this social menace at a scale unrivalled in other states in South-western Nigeria. Popularly the state would appear to have experienced a change of governmental control, with kidnappers dictating the pace of activities, as a wave of crime occasioned by their nefarious behaviour has thrived unabatedly, to an extent that one begins to wonder if God is still in charge. Relevant and interested organs of government have made several attempts to ameliorate this social malady but to no avail. This is so much the case that Ekiti State has earned the most unenviable designation of ‘the kidnapping capital of Nigeria’ (Ibekwe, 2010).
This criminal act violates one fundamental human right, enshrined in the UN Charter, and the Constitution of the Federal Republic of Nigeria—the freedom of movement. The rate of recurrence of this violation places in the front burner the question of government’s apparent show of inability to place this criminal activity on the leash. The media, both print and electronic, continues to run stories of abduction of innocent citizens, highlighting further that Nigerian security bodies may have been overwhelmed. In fact one article in the Guardian of July 24, 2010 was very unequivocal in its caption: Kidnapping and the Falling State Status of Nigeria. Governance entails a social contract by which the governed submit certain aspect of their rights to government, in return for government’s provision of security and social welfare. That government agencies campaigns have so far not been able to curb this social menace is evident in the persistence of the crime. This has had Nigerians of all social classes so terrified, creating a sense of insecurity comparable only to terrorist threats and attacks. At the height of this spate of kidnapping in Ekiti State, individuals, families, groups, businesses, worship centers, educational establishments, governmental institutions and, of course, the entire society suffered gravely as properties, monetary wealth, and time (from an economic waste perspective) were wasted.
Statement of the Problem:
Since crime is an abnormal human condition, unwanted and most undesired, it requires a paradigm shift on our popular conception of man in an organized society and the chances for a better and peaceful future. The violent crime of kidnapping, currently a global menace, has kept many residents in Ekiti without sleep, as every person (male and female, young and old) seem to command some kidnapping value within the state.
Kidnapping has taken an alarming dimension in Ekiti State (Jamiu, 2009). It is said to have sprung up in the Niger Delta when militants, calling for both national and international attention (Nyam, 2010) to the perceived injustices, deprivation and ecological degradation occasioned by oil exploration in the region, took to abduction of expatriate oil workers. Soon President Umar Yar’adua, as part of his Seven Point Agenda, granted presidential pardon to Niger Delta militants. Not long after, Ekiti State turned to a hub of kidnappers. This has raised concerns as to whether this wave of abductions is a reaction to the state’s exclusion from, or rather non-inclusion in, the federal government’s Amnesty Grant; or just an act of sheer criminality by seemingly jobless youths.
Kidnapping groups are often beyond the reach of the law enforcement agencies. This is evident in the time taken in conducting their violent bargains by requesting a second payment after reaching agreement and the release of a victim. On other occasions, kidnappers have portrayed inefficiency (whether deliberate or not) with regards to their “data base”, as they have abducted some persons over and over again. The government with little or no political will and a deteriorating moral authority has made several attempts utilising force in its approach to kidnapping diplomacy. Also, through negotiation and Amnesty Grants to youths as a means to its sustainable control, but to no avail. It, therefore, appears that the major issues at the root of the problem have not been addressed. The researcher’s attempt would be to explore Socio-Economic Effects Of Kidnapping In Ekiti State
Purpose of the Study:
The general purpose of this study is to examine Socio-Economic Effects Of Kidnapping In Ekiti State.
Our specific aims are, therefore;
- To ascertain the causes of kidnapping, without losing sight of its
- To examine the types and resultant consequences of kidnapping in Ekiti State.
- To determine the relationship between religion and crime in
- To ascertain the role of the church as a religious organisation in tackling kidnapping as a social
- To make recommendations that could influence policies, utilizing bricks of religious resource and legitimacy in the amelioration of kidnapping in our society.
Research Methodology:
The methodology used in this study is the historical research method. It utilised both primary and secondary sources of data collections. Since kidnapping is an on-going occurrence and contemporary social malady, the primary sources of data collection would be derived through oral interview from respondents, as a reliable medium for understanding individual perception of the subject matter. That the menace of kidnapping in Nigeria, especially in Ekiti State, has excited much media coverage and generated considerable body of literature. The study would therefore, explore relatively recent publications in newspapers and electronic media, books, journals, articles and unpublished thesis relevant to the study as the secondary sources of data collection. These information or data would be collected, organised and critically analysed.
Significance of the Study:
This study, being an exploration of a lingering and seemingly intractable and protracted social problem, will be of enormous significance to future researchers on kidnapping and similar violent crimes, especially since it is explored from a holistic perspective. It is hoped that this research would aid the various levels of government, policy experts and analysts in grasping the genuine causes and impacts of kidnapping. Ultimately, the study would contribute to closing the gap on the dearth of literature that exists on kidnapping, on the one hand, and other violent crimes, on the other hand.
This study will be of significant value relevant to individuals, families, groups, governmental and non-governmental agencies (especially faith-based organizations) involved in related criminal justice activity all over Nigeria. That is, the religious leaders, law enforcement agents (police and joint military task force) and other security and correctional agents interested in formulation, execution or reformation of the criminals among us.
Scope of the Study:
The researcher’s main task would be to examine Socio-Economic Effects Of Kidnapping In Ekiti State
Definition of Related Terms:
A brief explanatory remark on the key terms will be pertinent to aid a better understanding of the topic under study. The terms include the following: kidnapping, crime, violent crime and deviance.
*Kidnapping: Kidnapping is the taking away of a person by force, threat or deceit, with intent to cause him to be detained against his will. It may be done for ransom or for political purposes (http://www.encyclopedia.com/topic/kidnapping.aspx). Also it can be seen as;
The abduction of another person with an intent to hold him for ransom or reward; or use him as a shield or hostage; or accomplish or aid the commission of any felony or flight there from or inflict physical injury upon him, or to violate him sexually (http://definitions.uslegal.com/k/kidnapping/).
Ugwu (2010:3) enthused that kidnapping has been viewed in many dimensions. He further observed the line between kidnapping and false imprisonment and concludes that, kidnapping is “an aggravated form of false imprisonment that usually involves the transportation or concealment of kidnapped person”. In this work, we shall adopt Ugwu’s line of thought, that kidnapping is a false imprisonment that exercises a measure of control over another person’s freedom of movement with an intention to make gains, often financial, through a form of bargain for ransom.
*Crime: The complexity of crime requires a conscientious reflection noting its tie with sin and morality in general. Okezie (2007:12) views crime as a “violation of a norm that has been entered into law and is backed by power and authority of the state to impose formal sanction”. Also, Lippman (2010:2) simply defined crime as a “conduct that, if shown to have taken place, will result in a formal and solemn pronouncement of moral condemnation by the community”. While Siegel defines crime as;
A violation of societal rules of behaviour as interpreted and expressed by a criminal legal code created by people holding social and political power. Individuals who violate these rules are subject to sanctions by state authority, social stigma and loss of status (2004:18).
*Violent crimes: A violent crime is any criminal offense, which involves the use of, or even threat of force or violence (http://www.criminal-law-lawyer- source.com/term/violent.html). Also, violent can be said to have occurred “when an offender uses or threatens to use violent force upon a victim”
(http://www.justia.com/criminal/violent-crimes/). In addition, the term violent crime can be defined as, “a behavior by persons, against persons or property that intentionally threatens, attempts, or actually inflicts physical harm”. (http://definitions.uslegal.com/v/violent-crimes/). These are crimes that require or utilize physical force or aggression on victims. It includes offences such as murder, assault, rape, kidnapping among others.
Deviance: McLaughlin and Muncie (2001:89) defines the term deviance as “the aggregate of social behaviours, practices, acts, demeanours, attitudes, beliefs, styles or statuses which are culturally believed to deviate significantly from the norms, ethics, standards and expectations of society”. Also, Gidden, Duneier and Appelbaum (1999:169) construed deviance as “nonconformity to a given set of norms that are accepted by a significant number of people in a community or society”. Haralambos and Holborn (2004) noted that, “deviance consists of those acts which do not follow the norms and expectations of a particular social group”. Therefore, deviances are behaviours and actions that do not conform to the norms and values that are highly cherished by members of a social group or society at large.
Contents
Causes And Consequences Of Drug Abuse And Misuse Use Among Secondary School Student
Causes And Consequences Of Drug Abuse And Misuse-Use Among Secondary School Student A Study Of Umuahia North Local Government Area, Abia State
CHAPTER ONE
1.0 INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background to the Study
Since the early times, herbs, leaves and plants have been used to heal and control diseases. The use of drugs in itself does not constitute any danger, because drugs correctly administered have been a blessing. Falco (1988) as cited by Sambo (2008) viewed that “chronic use of substances can cause serious, sometimes irreversible damage to adolescent’s physical and psychological development. The use of drugs could be beneficial or harmful depending on the mode of use.
Drug is any chemical substance derived from plants, animals or mineral resources, be it traditional or orthodox which is used for internal application to the human body in the treatment of diseases, reduce pain or modify the functions of the various system of the body.
Although drug use has been in for years, the problem of drug abuse has been on the increase in the recent years. Drug is supposed to be dispersed by pharmacists with a doctor’s prescription and usage of drug can be through any of the following; injection, insertion, inhalation, massaging or application on open wounds and cuts. The main purpose of drugs should in reality be directed to its medical functions and it should be used strictly according to the prescription of medical doctors, but in most cases people use drug without the prescription of medical practice. This is referred to as drug abuse. In some cases, these drugs are used wrongly or misused that is using drug meant for certain purposes for other purposes rather than what it is meant for. There are other cases where some people get themselves involved in the use of a particular drug so much that they cannot do without such drug. In this case such a person is said to be addicted to that drug.
Cecilia (2010) opined that medically, drug abuse is the use of drug to an extent that it produces definite impairment of social, psychological or physiological functioning of the user. It is the use of illegal drugs, or the misuse of prescription or over-the-counter drugs. It refers to the use of a drug for purposes for which it is not intended or using a drug in excessive quantities. Such drugs of abuse include tobacco, barbiturates, amphetamines and narcotics. Drug abuse entails a strong cultural and subjective bias, depends on whether a society at a particular point in time views the use of a particular drug as acceptable or not. Therefore, what is regarded as normal use as against pathological abuse varies greatly from drug, quantity, situation to situation, culture to culture or even among subcultures of the same society.
Furthermore, NAFDAC (2000) as cited by Haladu (2003) explained the term drug abuse as excessive and persistent self-administration of a drug without regard to the medically or culturally accepted patterns. It could also be viewed as the use of a drug to the extent that it interferes with the health and social function of an individual.
It has been observed that much of drugs use among youths take place in schools. The incidence of substance use among students is called high or highness (Eneh and Stanley, 2004). Drug and alcohol use during adolescence is almost always a social experience and a learned behaviour (Swaid 1988). One of the important psychological phenomena observed during this period of adolescence is experimentation (Graham, Turk and Verhulst 1999). This behaviour has been found to lead to the trying out of new experiences such as drug and sex, sometimes with dire consequence for the adolescents.
“The growing trend in abuse and production of psychotropic drugs must be reversed…..we must never give in to the human toll illegal drugs are taking on our societies. There are 21 million victims around the world who abuse cocaine and heroin, and 30 million who abuse amphetamine type stimulants. We cannot ease their suffering, or that of their loved ones, unless we fight this.” Former UN Secretary-General Kofi Annan, at the opening of the General Assembly’s 1998 Special Session on World’s Drug Problem. We all face challenges that provide many opportunities for growth and change.
Among these are decisions regarding the role that alcohol and other drugs will have in your life. Odejide (2000) warned that drug abusers who exhibit symptoms of stress, anxiety, depression, behaviour changes, fatigue and loss or increase in appetite should be treated by medical experts and counsellors to save them from deadly diseases.
1.2 Statement of the Problem
Drug abuse is a general problem in Nigeria today especially in areas where there is no adequate supervision i.e. monitoring of students and effective usage of punishment for deviant behaviours. Recently NDLEA officials reported cases of secondary school students in possession of Indian Hemp. Umuahia North local government Area, has experienced rapid growth of population in recent years, the increasing demand for education has led to more secondary schools being formed. Due to the rapid development, drug use has become common among students in school and home environment and is even affecting their performances in class. Despite the worldwide concern and education about the dangers of drug abuse, most of the students have limited knowledge of how dangerous the habit is (Ngesu, 2008).Many students have dropped out of school and others opted to engage in criminal activities thus endangering the lives of the people living in Umuahia North. The young generation no longer has role models since most of the young Adults are unemployed and under the influence of this drugs.
Despite the government’s concern and heightened campaigns against the vice among secondary school students, there exists a parallel accelerated rate of students who are illicit drug users. Although, students are expected to be aware of the effects of drug abuse and commit themselves to their studies, the habit still exist default of their prior expected awareness of its consequences. Although excessive use of illicit drugs is prevalent in all societies, students with no exception, none of critical studies on factors influencing and prevention of drug abuse, its prevalence comparing schools youth is yet to be conducted in Umuahia North L.G.A, Abia State (Halimat, 2016). This has been established from a thorough search in the archives and libraries so as to ascertain originality of this study. This has been a green field of research that has greatly prompted the choice Umuahia North L.G.A, Abia State as the location of the study.
This study therefore, intended to establish the correlation between academic performance and the use of drugs in secondary schools in Umuahia North L.G.A, Abia State. Behaviour is a major aspect of life, after observing students behaviour when under the influence of this drugs this study would recommend ways of rehabilitating those already affected and ways of eradicating drug peddling business going on at our schools. The study would also propose policy recommendations to mainstream drug related projects to secure students’ rights to education and the entire young generation.
1.3 Purpose of Study
The purpose of this study is to investigate Causes And Consequences Of Drug Abuse And Misuse-Use Among Secondary School Student A Study Of Umuahia North Local Government Area, Abia State.
The specific objectives of the Study are as follows, which to;
- Identify the factors causing increase in the rate of Drug abuse among secondary school students in Umuahia North L.G.A, Abia State;
- Ascertain the types of drugs abused by secondary schooL students in Umuahia North L.G.A, Abia State;
- Assess the influence of drug abuse on the academic achievement of secondary school students in Umuahia North L.G.A, Abia State;
- Determine preventive measures of curbing drug abuse among secondary school students in Umuahia North L.G.A, Abia State.
1.4 Research Questions
This study would provide answers to the following research questions:
- What are the factors causing increase in the rate of Drug abuse among secondary school students in Umuahia North L.G.A, Abia State;
- What are the types of drugs abused by secondary school students in Umuahia North L.G.A, Abia State;
- What are the influence of drug abuse on the academic achievement of secondary school students in Umuahia North L.G.A, Abia State;
- What are the preventive measures of curbing drug abuse among secondary school students in Umuahia North L.G.A, Abia State.
1.5 Scope and Delimitation of the Study
This study is designed to cover the entire students in Secondary School in Umuahia North L.G.AAbia.
This research work would focus its effort towards obtaining Causes And Consequences Of Drug Abuse And Misuse-Use Among Secondary School Student A Study Of Umuahia North Local Government Area, Abia State., Moreso suitable suggestion and recommendation to solve the identified problem would be provided in the course of the research work.
1.6 Significance of the Study
The findings of the study would be useful to the Parents, Community, Student, School Administrators and Government. The study will help reveal the influence of major drugs on students’ academic performance and in their behaviour aspects. There are many parents and teachers with questions as to why their students don’t perform as expected, the government is also looking for explanations as to why the youth are not innovative and as to why most of them drop out of school.
Umahia North LGA, like many other area councils in Abia, Nigeria, is faced with the social problem of high rates of drug abuse. To make matters worse, the percentage of drug abusers in the population increases yearly despite the efforts to eradicate the problem. Failure to solve this problem not only threatens the life of individuals, but also the economic and social development of the country as a whole. The current study is useful in contributing to the general body of knowledge in this area. Beyond that, however, it also explores the potential of secondary schools to curb the drug problem.
The study would help to make local government; administrators, local community as well as students aware of the factors hindering the effectiveness of the approaches which attempt to curb drug abuse and, where possible, create opportunities to eradicate the problem. The proposed programme would be useful in educating all youths and adults in Abia state, on the risks of drug consumption. Thus, this study would play an important role in reducing, or even preventing high rates of drug use and abuse. Based on the findings, recommendations will be made. If followed, these recommendations would be useful to administrators and local government in curbing drug abuse in schools through improving existing educational programmes, and striving to develop ones that are even more efficient. A part from proposing more effective preventive measures in relation to drug abuse, the study will also provide a background for other studies in its prevention. This would help in promoting a drug-free school environment and better academic performance, thus improving the standards of education in the county. In the absence of specific policies on substance abuse in schools this study will make important recommendations on the way forward.
1.7 Operational Definition of Terms
In this study, there are certain words that need to be simplified or defined in order to make its meaning clearer.
Drugs: Drug is any chemical substance that is derived from plants and animals or mineral resources be it traditional or orthodox which is used for internal or external application to the human body in the treatment of diseases or to induce clam, reduce pains or modify the functions of the various system of the body.
Substance: Substance are chemical combination of drugs in order words drug made up of combination of chemical substance and substance can as well be refer to as those build up charge like alcohol, tobacco, cigarette and kolanuts.
Drug use: Drug use is the ingestion, injection or the application of any substances which when taken in into the body of living organism may modify one or more of its function, this includes not only medical also intended primarily active substance.
Drug misuse: Is the over zealous or indiscrete administration of drugs by using drug meant for certain purposes for another purpose rather than what it is meant for.
Drug addiction: Drug addiction is the dependence on a substance with the presence of physical withdrawal symptoms.
Psychoactive drugs: This is defined as in alternating drugs.
GLOBAL SYSTEM FOR MOBILE COMMUNICATION (GSM) SUBSCRIPTION FRAUD DETECTION SYSTEM USING ARTIFICIAL NEURAL NETWORK TECHNIQUE
GLOBAL SYSTEM FOR MOBILE COMMUNICATION (GSM) SUBSCRIPTION FRAUD DETECTION SYSTEM USING ARTIFICIAL NEURAL NETWORK TECHNIQUE
ABSTRACT
This project is concerned with GSM subscription fraud detection system using artificial neural network technique. Fraud is a multi-billion problem around the globe with huge loss of revenue. Fraud can affect the credibility and performance of telecommunication companies. The most difficult problem that faces the industry is the fact that fraud is dynamic, which means that whenever fraudsters feel that they will be detected, they device other ways to circumvent security measures. In such cases, the perpetrators intention is to completely avoid or at least reduce the charges for using the services. Subscription fraud is one of the major types of telecommunication fraud in which a customer obtain an account without intention to pay the bill. Thus at the level of a phone number, all transactions from the number will be fraudulent. In such cases abnormal usage occurs throughout the active period of the account; which is usually used for call selling or intensive self usage. This provides a means for illegal high profit business for fraudsters requiring minimal investment and relatively low risk of getting caught. A system to prevent subscription fraud in GSM telecommunications with high impact on long distance carriers is proposed to detect fraud. The system employs adaptive flexible techniques using advanced data analysis like Artificial Neural Networks (ANN). Fed with raw data, a neural network can quickly learn to pick up patterns of unusual variations that may suggest instances of fraud on a particular account. A total of 158 data samples were collected, trained and tested using a model that allows identifying potential fraudulent customers at the time of subscription. The result shows that 80% of the prediction accuracy has been obtained. From the result produced, artificial neural network has a potential to be used for detecting subscription fraud in telecommunication.
TABLE OF CONTETNS
Title Page – – – – – – – – – – i
Approval Page – – – – – – – – – ii
Dedication – – – – – – – – – – – iii
Acknowledgment – – – – – – – – – – – iv
Abstract – – – – – – – – – – – viii
Table of Contents — – – – – – – – – v
List of Figures – – – – – – – – – – x
CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background of the Study – – – – – – – 1
1.2 Statement of Problem- – – – – – – – 2
1.3 Objectives of the Study — – – – – – 2
1.4 Scope and Limitation of the Study – – – – – – – 3
1.5 Significance of the Study – – – – – – – 3
1.6 Definition of Terms – – – – – – – 4
CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Telecom Frauds – – – – – – – – 4
2. 1. 1 Subscription Fraud: – – – – – – – 7
2. 1. 2 Identity Theft: – – – – – – – – 7
2. 1.3 Roaming fraud: – – – – – – – – 8
2.1.4 DISA Fraud: – – – – – – – – 9
2. 1. 5 Phone Theft: – – – – – – – 10
2.1.6 Voicemail Fraud: – – – – – – – – 11
2. 1. 7 Some Factors Leading to Telecom Fraud – – – 11
2. 1. 8 Who Actually Commits Fraud- – – – – – – 12
2. 1. 9 Where do Fraudsters Work From – – – – – 13
2. 1. 10 Why do Fraudsters do it — – – – – – 12
2.2 Fraud Prevention and Detection – – – – – 12
2.2.1 Fraud Prevention – – – – – – – 17
2.2.2 Fraud Detection – – – – – – – – 20
2.2.2.1 Supervised Versus Unsupervised Learning – – – – 21
2.2.2.2 Supervised Methods of Fraud Detection – – – – 22
2.2.2.3 Unsupervised Methods of Fraud Detection- – – – 24
2.3 Fraud Detection Using Neural Network – – – – 25
2.4 GSM Subscription Fraud Detection Architectures – – – 27
2.4.1 System 1 Architecture – – – – – – – 27
2.4.1.1 Layer 1 – – – – – – – – – 28
2.4.1.2 Layer 2 – – – – – – – – – 28
2.4.1.3 Layer 3 – – – – – – – – – 28
2.4.2 System 2 – An ‘all in one’ Absolute Usage System – – – 28
2.4.3 System 3 – Introducing Diffential Usage – – – 29
CHAPTER THREE: SYSTEM ANALYSIS AND DESIGN
3.0 Analysis of the System – – – – – – – 31
3.1 Formulation of Model – – – – – – – 32
3.2 GSM Fraud Detection Using Neural Network- – – – 35
3.3 Object-Oriented Analysis of the System – – – – 38
3.4 Object-Oriented Design of the System – – – – – 39
3.4.1 Class Diagram of the System – – – – – – 40
3.4.2 Sequence Diagram of the System – – – – – 42
3.5 Database Design – – – – – – – – 46
3.5.1 Database diagram elements – – – – – – 46
3.6 Deployment diagram of the system – – – – – 47
CHAPTER FOUR: SYSTEM IMPLEMENTATION
4.0. Software Architecture – – – – – – – 49
4.1. System Requirements – – – – – – – 50
4.1.1 Hardware Requirements- – – – – – – – 50
4.1.2 Software Requirements – – – – – – – – 51
4.2. Development Environment, Coding and Testing Technique 51
4.3. Deployment Platform and Installation of the Software 53
4.4 Screen Shots of the Software Demos – – – – – – 53
4.5 User’s Guide – – – – – – 64
4.6 maintenance Guide – – – – – – 64
4.7 Program Documentation – – – – – – – – 65
CHAPTER FIVE: SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION
5.1 Summary – – – – – – – – – – 67
5.2 Conclusion – – – – – – – – – – 67
5.3 Recommendation – – – – – – – – – 68
5.4 Suggestion for further studies – – – – – – – 68
REFERENCE – – – – – – – – – 70
APPENDIX
Source Code
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure: 2.1 Flow of neutral network architecture 27
Figure: 2.2 An ‘all in one’ absolute usage system 29
Figure 2.3: Diffential usage system 30
Figure: 3.1 Architecture of the fraud detection tool 33
Figure 3.2 (a): Multilayer feed forward Neural network Architecture 36
Figure 3.2 (b): Back-propagation Neural network Architecture 38
Figure 3.3: Use Case boundary diagram of the system 39
Figure 3.4: Class diagram of the system 40
Figure 3.5 (a): Login sequence diagram 43
Figure 3.5(b): Make Call Sequence Diagram of the System 44
Figure 3.5 (c): End call Sequence Diagram of the System 45
Figure 3.5 (d): Check Detection Sequence Diagram of the System 45
Figure 3.6 Database Diagram of the System 47
Figure 3.7: Deployment Diagram of the System 48
Figure 4.1: The architecture of the software, GSM subscription fraud
detection using artificial neural network 49
Figure 4.2: Screen shot of the launch window 54
Figure 4.3 Screen shot of the welcome window 55
Figure 4.4: Screen shot of authenticate user window 56
Figure 4.4: Screen shot of make call window 57
Figure 4.6: Screen shot of timing window 58
Figure 4.7 Screen shot of call summary window 59
Figure 4.8 Screen shot of home page 60
Figure 4.9 Screen shot of add customer account detail page 61
Figure 4.10 Screen shot of check detection action 62
Figure 4.11 Screen shot of no detection page 63
Figure 4.12 Screen shot of fraud detections page
Investigate On Effect Of Water Quality On Concrete Material In Tropical Region Of Nigeria
Abstract
The Effect Of Water Quality On Concrete Material In Tropical Region Of Nigeria. was evaluated in this study. A total of 100 concrete cubes (150 x 150 x 150 mm) were cast using a mix ratio of 1:2:4. The hardened concrete cubes were de-moulded 24 hours after the cubes were cast and were submerged carefully in a curing tank filled with water. The physico-chemical characteristics of the water used in mixing the concrete was determined according to standard procedures. A slump test was conducted to determine the workability of concrete. Compressive test was carried out on the hardened concrete at 7, 14, 28 days, respectively. Results showed that the physiochemical characteristics of the all the water samples examined fell within acceptable limits set by the World health Organization (WHO) except for the iron, magnesium, and lead contents which were grossly out of acceptable limits. From the slump result obtained, the source of water in mixing concrete doesn’t affect the workability of concrete. The study also revealed that irrespective of the type of water used in making concrete, the development in strength increases with an increase in age.
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